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THE
PHYSIOLOGY OR MECHANISM
OF
BLUSHING;
ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE INFLUENCE OF MENTAL EMOTION ON THE CAPILLARY CIRCULATION ;
GENERAL VIEW OF THE SYMPATHIES,
THE ORGANIC RELATIONS OF THOSE STRUCTURES WITH WHICH THEY SEEM TO BE CONNECTED.
BY
THOMAS H. BURGESS, M. D.
GRADUATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH ; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF LONDON, AND OF THE SOCIETE MEDICALE D’OBSERVATION OF PARIS.
Only cover the human face, and the curtain is instantly dropped over this mirror of the soul; hence the people of all nations leave it bare—Bichdt.
LONDON: «JOHN CHURCHILL, PRINCES STREET, SOHO.
eee
1839.
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* LONDON : PRINTED B SCOTT, 62 JOHN STREET, HOLLAND STREET, BLACKFRIARS ROAD
PREFACE.
Tuere is, perhaps, no subject more interesting either to the physiologist or general enquirer, than that which embraces a consideration of the involuntary acts of the mind upon the vital organs and their several functions. The various emotions and sen- sations excited by these acts, are, indeed, in them- Selves, sufficiently attractive as matters of contem- plation; although, to the medical enquirer, pro- bably less so, than the physical changes that are produced in different parts of the body by their agency. It is, therefore, with these changes that the author has principally occupied himself in the following pages.
Of all the alterations resulting from mental emo- tion, none are more surprising, or more worthy of attentive consideration, than those which take place in the Circulation of the Blood. The wonderful influence which the mind exerts on the movement
of the vital fluid (arresting its progress or increas- ing its velocity according as the impressions made are of a depressing or exciting nature) offers a wide
iv PREFACE.
and fruitful field of investigation. Impressed with this idea, the author has been induced to direct his attention particularly to the phenomenon of Brus- ING, which, from its intimate connexion with the Sympathies in general, will be found to afford more ample scope for physiological enquiry than might
at first sight be imagined. The close analogy be-
tween blushing and inflammation is also another link in the chain of interest its investigation pre- sents to the purely medical enquirer.
In those parts of the subject bearing especially on Anatomy and Physiology, the author has had oc- casion, in several places, to dissent from the opinions of different writers on the same subject, and has advanced other views which appear to him as more tenable; but he trusts he has always done this in a tone of proper respect. His chief aim throughout this little work has been to draw valid conclusions from well authenticated facts, and by this means to arrive at truths that may in time become of use to
science.
3, North Crescent, Bedford Square, February 1839.
CONTENTS.
INIRODUCTION «= kien eg eee ods Piece 1
SECTION FIRST.— Natural History of Blushing. Cuaprrer I.—The Poetry of Blushing. Blushing alluded
to by ancient and modern writers in all countries. The expressive phrase of the Gaelic language, descriptive of the Blush of Shame. Virgil’s imagery. The Paleness of Fear contrasted with the Blush of Shame. Homer’s SPSS eRe rine 0g 01 RR me CRE NT a a Pec a corer |
Cuar. I].—On Sensibility. Sensibility of Plants. Poetic allusions to Blushing in the names of Flowers. Peculiarity of the Sensitive Plant. Have Plants a Nervous System? Peculiarities of the Daisy ; Convol- vulus; Hop Plant, and Sun Flower. Sensibility of the Lower Animals. Voltaire’s views of Sensation. The structure of the class Infusoria less complicated than that of Vegetables. Sensibility of Man. Aris- totle’s Aphorism. The engendering of the Ideas. Di- vision of Sensibility into True and False. Mental Con- fusion produced by False Sensibility. Causes which most frequently give rise to the latter in Youth. . 12
Cuar. II1.—Blushing an evidence of Design. *Re- ferred to in Scripture History. The probable intent of the Creator in endowing Man with this peculiar power of exhibiting his internal emotions. Its salutary effect in curbing the inclination from moral transgressions. The civilized being more prone to blush than the savage. The existence of Moral Instinct in man distinct from Habit, contrary to Paley’s views, &. . . . . 2i
Cuar. IV.—Different varieties of the human race. The Negro’s peculiarity. Ethiopian faces are often met with which express the various emotions of the mind with
CONTENTS.
great energy. Does the Negro blush? Humboldt’s opinion confuted. The cicatrix or scar remains white in the Negro, the rete mucosum or seat of colour not being reproduced. Example of a Negress blushing. The hybrid races blush as intensely as Europeans. Albino’s peculiarity ; their descent. Description of. Peculiar appearance of Albinos when blushing. Their great susceptibility. The light-coloured races. The relation that exists between Blushing and Reason. Mental debasement of the Cretins. The advantages and vices of Civilization. The child of a philosopher compared with one of savage parentage. ‘Their relative advan- tages. Inferences drawn therefrom, &c., &c. . . 28
Cuar. V.—Different varieties of the Blush. The True Blush. Exhibited by a female during magnetic sleep. The Blush of Feeling. The False Blush. Not confined to any period of life from puberty to senility. Its de- leterious effects on those subjected to its influence. As common to males as females. The particular constitu- tions most prone to False Blushing. Peculiarity of an in- dividual with the Blue Disease. The Deceptive Blush, its reference to Legal Medicine. The Hectic Flush and Flush of Rage, their difference from the True Blush, in which the countenance droops. The Dying Hectic. 48
Cuar. VI.—The Idiots peculiarity. Is he capable of Blushing? Analogy between the Idiot and Drunkard. Can Blushing be produced during the period of intoxi- cation or madness? Insane persons regarded as sin- ners. Is the faculty of Blushing dependent on reason ? Analogous phenomena in the lower animals. Colouring RF a ee ne eer ee
SECTION SECOND.—Anatomy of Blushing.
Cuar. I.—The principal structures engaged in the produc- tion of the phenomenon. Of the Brain. The seat of the Soul. The seat of the Sensorium, or thinking faculty. The seat of the passions. Where does the impulse which excites the Blush proceed from? The Spinal Marrow. The Spinal Marrow not the source of the
CONTENTS. vii
True Blush. All the vital organs supplied with nervous influence from this part. The Sympathetic Nerves. The semilunar ganglion the origin of the agreeable sensations and sad emotions of the Soul. The Blush of Shame produced by nervous influence. R V7
Cuar. II.—The Heart and Capillary Blood-vessels. Sym- pathy between the Heart, Brain, and Stomach. The embowelling of a criminal. The heart of a Man leaping after Death. Effects of the Passions on the Heart’s ac- tion. Death produced by a slight blow over the region of the stomach. The capillary vessels supplied by the Sympathetic Nerves. The blood propelled through these vessels by the Heart’s action alone. By what means is the red colour produced in Blushing ? ` Do white fluids circulate through these vessels? Relation between Blushing and Inflammation. Turgescence of the blood- vessels induced by Nervous Influence, Why does the Blush strike on the cheek ? ioiai j . 115
Cuar. ITI—Of the Dermis or Skin of the Cheek. Dif- ferent layers of the Skin. The Rete Mucosum or Seat of Colour. Movement of the blood in the Capil- laries may be seen in one’s own body. Capillaries of the Face and Neck more liable to be permeated with blood than those of any other part. The retrograde Movement of the blood from the Cheek. The Face affords to our passions three means of expression. The Anatomical arrangement and exquisite delicacy of the Skin in this region. The Face not the only part which Colours. 116
SECTION THIRD.— The Mechanism of Blushing.
Cuar. I.—Of the Sensation of Blushing. The reflected Movements of Sympathy. Epileptic Aura, &e. . 131
Cuar. II.—Of the Anastomosing or Joining of the Nerves. Do the Sympathies depend on a communication between the Nerves? Whytt’s Doctrines. Union of the Gang- ionic Nerves. Sympathetic emotions referred to the Brain and Spinal Marrow. The stifling of Grief. Ver- micular influence of the Sympathetic on the Capillaries,
Vili CONTENTS.
Whytt’s Theory of Blushing examined. Nervous influ- ence the cause of the accumulation of blood in the Capillaries of the Face in Blushing. The Nerve of ex- pression of the Human Countenance. Electric currents in the Nerves. Conclusions of Wilson Philip, Prevost,
and Dumas. .
136
Cuar. II.—A Theory of the Mechanism of Blushing. Does the phenomenon of Blushing come under the head of the Passions? Can the Blush be produced after the head is severed from the body? Charlotte Corday’s case. Vitality of the Eel and Salamander continues after the body is divided into several parts. A Nervous circle from the Brain to the Stomach or Solar Plexus, through which the Blush-exciting impulse is conveyed. The impulse of the Moral Feelings conveyed through the Sympathetic. Anomalous Sensations preceding the Blush. Cause of the Drooping of the Countenance. Oxygenation of the blood in the Cheek during the Blush. The injection of the Corpora Cavernosa. Explanation of this phenomenon. Decline of the Blush. Retrograde movement of the Blood. The Veins never influenced during any of the emotions of the Mind. Doctrines of Lavater. Blushing the result, not of an exciting but of a Mixed Emotion. The analogy between it and Weeping in this respect. eG rae E,
CONCLUSION.
Morat and Physical Treatment of the Mental Emotions arising from Diseased Sensibility. Early Moral Train- ing and its advantages. Physical Treatment. The Sa- lutary influence which Gymnastic Exercises exert on the Intellectual and Moral Powers. Pernicious effects of Boarding School Physical Education. Gymnastics recommended by Herodicus, Hippocrates, Galen, Celsus, Sanctorius, Van Swieten, Macartney, &c. Cultivation of Gymnastic Education in Paris. Gymnasium of MM. Pravaz and Jules Guerin. pee 183
ERRATUM. Page 111, line 14th from top, for ought to flow, read ought not to flow.
ON THE
PHYSIOLOGY OR MECHANISM
OF
BLUSHING.
INTRODUCTION.
Wuo has not observed the beautiful and interest- ing phenomenon of Biusurne? Who indeed has not had it exemplified in his own person, either from timidity during the modest and sensitive days of boyhood, or from the conscious feeling of having erred in maturer years ? When we see the cheek of an individual suffused with a blush in society, imme- diately our sympathy is excited towards him; we feel as if we were ourselves concerned, and yet we know not why. The condition by which the emo- tion thus proclaimed is excited, viz., extreme sen- sibility, the innate modesty and timidity which are the general concomitants of youth, enlist our feel- ings in favour of the party, appeal to our better nature, and secure that sympathy, which we our-
selves may have claimed from others on similar occasions.
INTRODUCTION.
There are some, perhaps, who may be inclined to smile ‘at the subject of this Essay. But if these individuals will but reflect on the wonderful me- chanism of their being ; if they remember that there is not a function, even the simplest, carried on in the economy of man, which is not in the most perfect harmony with all the others, and suggest to themselves that there is a physiology of the mind as well as of the body, perhaps they may be inclined to excuse me for contemplating with wonder and admiration the beautiful illustration of one among the moral laws of nature. Their smiles may give way to pleasing reflections on the unity of design so apparent in creation, in which nothing is super- fluous, in which everything that is ordained has
some final object, and over which evidently pre- sides an all-wise and bountiful Providence.
We know that the different passions affect va- riously the secretions of the lachrymal gland, mouth, kidney, liver, and most remarkably the mucous membrane of the bowels; and, as Dr. Alison has well observed, the effects of the involuntary acts of the mind (i. e., Emotions and Sensations) on the body deserve more attention than they have re- ceived from most physiologists. They constitute one important element, which must be taken into account in considering various questions in patho- logy and therapeutics, and they may serve to give precision to our inquiries into the physiological
INTRODUCTION. 3
uses of those parts of the nervous system which we have reason to suppose are concerned in producing them.
“ We do not commonly consider how much is given us in life; the daily enjoyment of the boon renders us insensible of the variety and plenitude of its richness: we become more sensible of it when we contemplate the number of tissues that have been formed, the number of properties that are attached to each, the number of organs that are constituted by their aggregation and arrangement, the number of functions that are exercised by these organs, and the number of adjustments by which all are com- bined and harmonized, and made effectual to the production of one grand result; it is then we per- ceive how many things must exist, how many rela- tions must be established, how many actions must be performed, how many combinations of actions must be secured, before there can be sensation, and motion, and thought, and happiness.”
It may also be observed, that most of- the objects of organic nature grow up so gradually by our side, that we do not consider them at all in the same way as we should do if they started suddenly upon our vision. Now it is this familiarity with the pheno- menon of blushing, which from constant observance appears trivial and of little moment, and the habit of seeing without reflection, that causes it and its relative sympathies to be almost entirely overlooked ;
i a re hes carmel SN a e x ` .
4 INTRODUCTION..
whereas in reality there are no subjects in mental philosophy more deeply interesting than those which the various emotions that produce blushing, sighing, weeping, laughing, &c., afford for specula- tion. I shall endeavour to demonstrate the intimate connection between the phenomenon of blushing and moral and physical science, generally. With ana- tomy, in particular, I shall show its relations, in so far as the nerves, skin, and arteries are concerned ; with physiology, as regards the mechanism by which it is produced ; with comparative anatomy ; with the’natural history of the human species; and lastly, with moral philosophy, in numerous interest- ing points of contact.
Blushing is attributed, as has been badi stated, to the exquisite sensibility of youth, which, accord- ing to the popular belief, wears gradually away in advancing years. This is the idea that strikes the generality of observers, and with this they are satisfied. In short, blushing is a phenomenon of such every-day occurrence, that we never dream of investigating the conditions, moral and physical, upon which it depends.
As this interesting phenomenon has not hitherto, so far as I am aware, been made the subject of a distinct Essay, and as I am convinced that many important physiological points are involved in its consideration, I have been induced to direct my attention to it—for instance, the instantaneous injec-
INTRODUCTION. 5
tion of the minute blood-vessels of the cheek, and the equally sudden disappearance of the abnormal colour after the paroxysm has passed away; also that question which has been so long discussed by medical inquirers, as to whether the ultimate branches of the nerves, by anastomosing, transmit their peculiar energy reciprocally from one to an- other, or have no such power; and farther, the obvious connection between the phenomena of blush- ing and those of inflammation, as I shall endeavour to prove hereafter.
In considering the physiology of blushing, the effect alone is what I would presume to investigate ; the cause which produces it, moral and otherwise, re-
Mains deep in the obscurity which still encircles the higher attributes of man. The entire phenomenon
is certainly intimately connected with the mens conscia recti, with the Soul, and as an investigation into the nature of this might prove dangerous, as it would certainly be fruitless, I have held it more ad- visable to leave it as among the dark mysteries of life, than to attempt fathoming an abyss that knows no limits. In such inquiries “we reach the gulf which human intelligence cannot pass; and, if the presumptuous mind of man shall dare to extend its speculations farther, it will do so only to evince its incapacity and mortify its pride.” *
* Sir David Brewster.
6 INTRODUCTION.
The following is the arrangement adopted in this Essay :—
First. A History of the phenomenon of Blushing as observed in the different tribes of the human race, &c.
Second. The Anatomy of the parts engaged in its production, as the brain, nerves, heart, blood-vessels, and skin.
Third. The Mechanism by which all these parts
are combined and put in motion before the blush can be excited on the cheek.
Fourth and last. Some observations on the moral and physical treatment of the mental emotions arising from diseased sensibility.
SECTION FIRST,
NATURAL HISTORY OF BLUSHING.
CHAPTER I. THE POETRY OF BLUSHING.
La moindre émotion, la moindre agitation, le moindre mouve- ment un peu violent, y accumulent, y diminuent, y font varier de mille maniéres la quantité du sang.—Bicuar.
Biusnine may be styled the poetry of the Soul! In the writings of the earliest lyric and epic poets, we find the phenomenon of Blushing frequently de- scribed and alluded to; and where it is mentioned, we may generally perceive that the intention of the author in so doing, was to render the particular passage more effective.
The ancient writers (rigid observers of human nature) were well aware that nothing produced a greater effect on the mind of man, than a glowing description or illustration of its own passions. Thus we find the finest passages in their writings are generally descriptions of the internal emotions, as rage, hope, fear, shame, &c.; and Demosthenes,
8 ; THE POETRY OF BLUSHING.
who has been justly compared, by his rival Æschines, to a siren, from the melody of his expressions, dis- plays his greatest eloquence and energy in describ- ing the various passions of the soul.
When Jupiter disclosed himself to the beautiful Europa, in the Dictean Cave, we are told by Lucian that the fair damsel was downcast with shame and modesty.
Our modern poets, copying, perhaps, partly after their illustrious progenitors, introduce blushing into many of their ballads and romances. The descrip- tion of this phenomenon is not confined to one lan- guage or one country; it has been alluded to by ancient and modern poetic and prose writers, in al- most every country from Araby to the Pole. It is the épépyz« of Homer and Sappho ; the Rubor of Ovid, Virgil, and Horace; the Rossore of Tasso and Ariosto ; the Erroethen of Zimmerman, Schiller, and Goéthe ; and the Rougeur of the impassioned Lamartine.
In that expressive, but now almost forgotten dia- lect, the Gaelic, this phenomenon is not omitted. In this language the words signifying the act of blushing, are -eloquently expressive ;—they are pronounced thus, as well as I can write them in English characters—“< Loss shé soughs,” which being interpreted, means “ Her face lit up.” “ Loss shé soughs le nara” being the phrase generally used, signifies, “ Her face lit up with shame!”
POETRY OF BLUSHING. 9
What picture can be more interesting than the virgin cheek in the act of blushing? The eloquent blood Sympathizing with every mental emotion, rising and spreading over the cheek—
e
yen giving WARMTH as it flies,
From the lips to the cheek, from the cheek to the eyes,” affords a beautiful example of that “ harmonie poetique” which exists between the mental emotions and sympathetic system in man. When an indi- vidual is about to blush, “the whole heart and soul and sense in concert move,” transmitting the Sensorial impulse from one to the other, and as it were propel the blood by their combination of ac- tions, until it appears in the cheek, where it is—
“ Brought forth in purple, cradled in vermilion.”
How beautifully is this described by Virgil, in the twelfth book of the Aneid, in that passage relating to the interview between Turnus and Lavinia, prior to the former resuming arms in order to terminate, by single combat, the disastrous war between the Trojans and Rutulians. The passage opens by Amata, the mother of Lavinia, in tears, beseeching Turnus not to engage with the Trojans ;—
Accepit vocem lacrimis Lavra matris Flagrantis perfusa genas: cui plurimus ignem Subjecit ruzor, et calefacta per ora cucurrit. Indum sanguineo veluti violaverit ostro Si quis ebur, aut mixta rubent ubi Lrtra multa Alba rosa: talis virgo dabat ore colores. Illum turbat amor, figitque in virgine vultus : Ardet in arma magis ; Patt Re se
c
10 POETRY OF BLUSHING.
The imagery of this passage is exquisite! What simile could be more beautiful or expressive than that between the blushing cheek of the fair Lavinia, and the ivory of Indus stained with purple, or the white lily in the bosom of roses? This image is chasteness itself, more especially as it emanates from the purest of Latin poets. Let us contrast this glow- ing description with the appearance which fear presents.
A man struck with sudden terror (says Van Swietan) grows pale and cold, shrinks in every part of his body ; his pulse is quick, but low and unequal; the heart palpitates; the lungs are oppressed, and sobs and sighings follow; his strength fails him ; his whole body trembles, or, as it sometimes hap- pens, grows stiff like a statue ; and his voice cleaves to the roof of his mouth. For which reason, Homer calls fear cold, and again speaks of pale fear; thus when Paris fled from Menelaus, trembling seized his limbs, he fell backwards, and his cheeks turned pale.
In that passage of the second book of the Aineid wherein Æneas is described as meeting the “ mourn- ful ghost or shade of his beloved Cretisa,” while wandering through the burning ruins of Troy, we find the following expressive line, describing the effects of fear :—
“ Obstupui, steteruntque come, et vox faucibus heesit.””
If we reflect on the variety of changes and actions
POETRY OF BLUSHING. ll
that must take place in our moral and physical con- stitution before either the blush of shame, or the paleness of fear, can be represented in the human face, we-must clearly see that such adaptation and harmony of arrangement as here evinced, could never be the effect of chance; on the contrary, in every link of the chain which combines all the or- Sans engaged in the production of these phenomena, | there is a palpable evidence of Design, it is ano- ther convincing argument proclaiming to the hearts _ Of men that “the hand that made them is Divine.”
Is it not interesting to analyze this moral passion, alluded to from the earliest times down to the pre- sent, in almost every novel, ballad, and romance,
but explained by no one? Is it not interesting to inquire into the mystery of the existence of such a check upon the conscience, which tells man that he must not deceive his neighbour?
Blushing in its diseased form is evidently the re- sult of an over refined state of sensibility; I, there-
fore, think it advisable to offer some general obser-
vations on Sensation—commencing with Plants, in which division of organic nature this faculty is first observed, and passing from the vegetable kingdom through the various classes of the lower animals to
man, in whom it is developed in the same ratio with his status in civilization.
$
ON SENSIBILITY.
CHAPTER II.
SENSIBILITY OF PLANTS.
In the vegetable kingdom we can find an abun- . dance of poetic allusions to the subject under con- sideration, in the name, for instance, of the Blush rose, of the Carnation, Rubens uva, &c., and who is
not familiar with the following beautiful lines—
“ Full many a flower is born to Brus unseen, _ And waste its fragrance on the desert air?”
But as we have no evidence of any process similar to inflammation existing in this kingdom, and as the grand distinction between plants and animals consists in the former being deprived of that sensa- tion attended with consciousness, and voluntary motion which the latter possess in such a high degree, we cannot expect to find an external and figurative illustration of mental emotion in this division of or- ganised beings, unless, indeed, we would have re- course to the Pythagorean philosophy.
SENSIBILITY OF PLANTS. 13
However, that plants possess a peculiar irritability
or excitability, which is somewhat analogous to sen- sation in animals, is admitted by all; and some go even farther than this, and endeavour to show that Sensation in the proper acceptation of the word exists in vegetables. l
The singular power of motion, when touched, for which the sensitive plant is so celebrated, has been frequently cited as the best example for proving the correctness of this statement. Even Dutrochet has attempted to show that the nervous particles in which sensation specially resides are visible to the naked eye. For example, in the sensitive plant, at a little swelling at the base of the leaf stalk, where the greatest degree of motion resides, these
little green particles of supposed nervous matter are
particularly abundant, and, what is extremely curious, these granules are found to be affected by certain chemical agents in the same manner as the nervous particles of certain molluscs. Poisons have been found by Professor Marcet of Geneva to act in the same way upon plants as upon ani- mals, corrosive poisons stiffening the organs as if they produced a sort of vegetable inflammation, narcotic poisons relaxing the whole system, and inducing a state similar to stupefaction. Hence it has been concluded that there must be something
analogous to the scattered elements of a nervous sys- fem in plants.
E UM ii a a
14 SENSIBILITY OF PLANTS.
Brachet of Paris has endeavoured to prove that the pith is the seat of the nervous system in plants, and the medullary rays are the nervous branches. But De Candolle, the celebrated professor at Ge- neva, holds a different opinion from that entertained by MM. Mirbel, Brachet, Marcet, and Dutrochet. He, on the contrary, is of opinion that the analogy deduced from the animal kingdom in favour of sen- sation in plants is quite inconclusive.
The nervous system, says De Candolle, which is very evident and distinct from all others in animals of the upper classes, gradually tends to divide ; and finally one is forced to admit, that in zoophytes the nervous matter is diffused over the whole body; so that the latter possess a kind of universal sensibility, without there being any where a nervous system distinct from the tissue. Hence, they say, we ar- rive at the vegetable kingdom, where the nervous system is incorporated with the whole tissue ; but if this conclusion is to have any probability, it must be shown that the plants, which have the greatest resemblance to zoophytes in structure, are also those in which the symptoms of sensation are the most evident; but this is zot the case.
Before concluding my remarks ‘upon sensation, as observed or presumed to be observed in plants, I may give the following examples as the best general illustration of their sensibility. First, the Lettuce plant in flower, with which every one is familiar,
SENSIBILITY OF PLANTS. 15
Whose cuticle emits a milky fluid at the part touched or irritated. Second, the Barberry, which retreats instantaneously from the touch. Third, Venus’s fly- trap, (Diondea,) a native of Carolina, one of the best examples; if the surface of the upper side of the leaf of this plant be ever so gently touched, the sides Will approximate, and the teeth will close up with such force that it is difficult to separate them again. Fourth, the Stylidium, a green-house plant, which is seen bending down to one side, as if it wished to Conceal itself; but the moment it is touched, it sud- denly starts up and swings to the opposite side. “ The sensitive plant has its leaves divided into a great number of leaflets, which spread flat in the sunshine, and seem as quiet as other leaves; but only touch one of the leaflets, and the whole system of the leaf will be irritated ; all the leaflets will rapidly collapse one after the other, till at last the impulse is communi- cated to the base of the leaf-stalk, which immedi- ately curves downwards. After a time it rises again, the leaflets unfold, and the leaf resumes its original appearance and direction.”
Whether this curious phenomenon be the effect of the vital principle merely in a state of concentra- ted action, as has been asserted, or, as I am in- clined to believe, is a species of the same sensa- tion with which animals are endowed, modified and adapted by Providence to the peculiar external agents under whose control the vegetable kingdom
O onea ant
16 SENSIBILITY OF PLANTS.
is placed, and upon whom this entire family princi- pally depends for existence. Whichever of these views of the subject be the correct one, I shall not now wait to discuss. It is sufficient for my present purpose to demonstrate that there isa something an- alogous to sensation (as we understand the term) in- herent in this division of organic nature, that plants as well as animals are, to a greater or less degree, sensible of external impressions—that many of this tribe are capable of recoiling from these impressions, be it from an organic instinct or not, and if they are repeated, those examples above cited may be made to wither, droop, or die.
Is it “ vital contractility” that causes the Daisy and Convolvulus to fold up their bosom as evening approaches? Is it from the same cause that the Hop plant follows the course of the sun from east to west, and even dies if forced into an opposite direc- tion? Is it by this faculty also that the Sun-flower is enabled to present her splendid disk to the sun—
« Sad when he sets, shuts up her yellow leaves,
Drooping all night; and when he warm returns, Points her enamoured bosom to his ray ?”
Is this “ vegetable instinct ?” is it “ vital contrac-
tility ?” or is it the germ of true sensation ?
SENSIBILITY OF THE LOWER ANIMALS.
False Blushing, as before stated, being the effect of a morbid susceptibility of impressions in the senso- rium, and liable to be excited by any mental emo- tion that may jar with its condition, | deemed it proper, and have endeavoured in the foregoing division of this Chapter, to demonstrate the first dawning of something akin to sensation* in the vegetable kingdom, and which, for the present, we shall suppose to be an inferior degree of that con- Sciousness of impressions which is so characteristic of the highest orders of animate beings.
As we ascend in the scale of creation we find this endowment of consciousness gradually devel- oped through each class of animals, until finally we arrive at man, in whom it is perfect. And how wonderfully is it graduated, in these various classes, according to the relations in which they stand to the external world ! > ee
In the functions of the simplest animals there is scarce any change from those of plants; and it is asserted that the class Infusoria, which has been placed by Muller at the ultimate limits of animal
_ * Thought seems to us somewhat strange ; but SENSATION is no less wonderful: a Divine power equally shows itself in the Sensation of the meanest insect, as in Newton’s brain; and an
eminent philosopher says, that sensation includes all our facul- ties—Vozraie. 5
D
18 SENSIBILITY OF THE LOWER ANIMALS.
existence, possesses even a less complicated struc- ture than the perfect plants; but, nevertheless, it enjoys sensation in a higher degree than the former.
Advancing through the various classes of the Bursariz, Polypi, Echinodermata, the highest order of Zoophytes, and considerably higher through the Articulate, Crustaceæ, &c.; we find the faculty of sensation to be ripening itself in each, according to the order in which they have been enumerated.
In the class of birds, the first division of animated nature in which genuine inflammation has been proved to exist, we find it highly developed ; and lastly, in the Mammalia, at the head of which man is placed, in whom we find this function, or (more properly speaking) this feeling, attended with con- sciousness and perception, existing in the highest degree of refinement and perfection.
It is a law in physiology, that the sensibility and contractility of living and organized bodies are the primary causes of all the phenomena which such bodies exhibit. The subject of the present Essay comes within this law, for without sensibility and perception, blushing (in the moral sense of the word) could not be produced.
I have already traced sensation from its first appearance in the simple vegetable to its complete development in the human being ; and as sensibility is, according to the above law, one of the principal causes of the phenomenon I am about to consider,
SENSIBILITY OF MAN. 19
I shall make a few observations on this function in-
dividually, before entering into the particulars of our interesting subject.
SENSIBILITY OF MAN.
Nil est in intellectu, quod non prius fuerit in sensu.—ARisTorLx.
Sensibility may be defined to be that peculiar action of the brain by which we receive impressions, either internal or external. The impression produced on any organ by the action of an external body con- stitutes sensation. This sensation being transmitted by nerves to the brain, is perceived, that is, felt by this organ. The sensation then becomes perception, and this first modification implies, as must be evi- dent, the existence of a central organ, to which im- pressions produced on the senses are conveyed. Independent of those sensations that are carried from the organs of sense to the brain, there are others internal, that seem to be transmitted to it by a kind of sympathetic reaction, and these internal sensations are the origin of our moral faculties, according to M. Richerand and other physiologists.
In childhood and youth they are vivid, and easily excited ; in manhood we find them still buoyant,
whan in elias a
20 SENSIBILITY OF MAN.
but more under the control of the will; thence, through life, they gradually decline, until they be- come finally confused or extinct in the fatuity of old age.
Since the time of Locke, it is allowed that our ideas come to us through the senses, and are not innate, as was formerly supposed. They are engen- dered by an association, as it were, of an external stimulus, and the mind; for instance, the emotions of pleasure or pain are connected with some external object, which, impinging upon the sensorium or thinking part of the brain, generate the ideas. Thus itis, if we receive pleasing or joyful tidings, our sen- sibility is roused, ideas are generated, and we feel an
universal glow over the body. But, on the other hand, if the intelligence be painful, and the feelings intense, we feel oppressed ; the heart, according to a popular expression, sinks within us, or weeping is
produced by an emotion of sympathy.
This sense is modified by various causes, such as age, sex, temperament, the season, climate, habit, and individual disposition, and in civilized society we generally observe it in two perfectly distinct forms, true and false. In some persons it is very obtuse, in others it is very elevated, but the deside- ratum, or that necessary for the social state of exist- ence, would be a medium between both these extremes.
By true sensibility, I mean that state of feeling
SENSIBILITY OF MAN. 2]
Which draws a distinction between right and wrong, and is not liable to all impressions indiscrimi- nately. It is this- form of sensibility which im- Presses us with a moral consciousness of what is _ Tight, and that gives us‘strength of mind sufficient in the common occurrences of life, be they agreeable or otherwise, fully to perform our duty, without being thwarted by any mawkish sentiments, but at the Same time evincing moral feeling when that feeling is properly called forth.
_ False sensibility is by far the most common of the two—it may be defined as a peculiar irritability of that part of the sensorium which receives the im- pression of our ideas—which is liable to be disturbed or excited by the slightest efforts of the imagination, and is as frequently affected by fanciful or imagin- ary as by real causes. |
This morbid state, for such we must call it, as well as our vices and our virtues, is sometimes the effect of organisation, and sometimes the effect of education, or the want of it; but in all cases, the evil may be modified if not changed for the good, by timely well-directed moral training.
What is more common than to see a young per- Son, or one who has not been in the habit of mixing In society, on entering a room appear abashed and Confused, without the slightest cause whatsoever. Indeed, there are some individuals whom if you
22 SENSIBILITY OF MAN.
only meet or chance to address, immediately be- come suffused—
Rubens instar rose ; and if they reply to you in turn, you find their an- swers are monosyllabic, vague, and incoherent. Now, let us see whence does this arise.
It is evidently from an unnatural or disordered state of the moral sensibility; but, as many circum- stances may combine to encrease this derangement, as is observed in every-day life, I shall mention the following, as being in a general view the most leading: First, A mind naturally sensitive, if not guided or directed by rational means in youth, will invariably become easily excited if not irritable in after-years. Second, By harsh and improper cor-
rection for trivial errors, the mind of a young per-
son, not endowed with false sensibility, may be rendered so, when introduced into society, from a constant fear of its own incapability or a dread of being convicted of some deficiency in the routine of manners, conversation, mode of expression, &c, Third, A mind educated by that sentimentalism or refinement which is the effect of novel reading, for, in this instance, the imagination generally leads the reason prisoner. This is an example of that acquired sensibility which unfits us for the duties of life, and is the individual’s own fault, not that of the parent or guardian. As a general rule,
SENSIBILITY OF MAN. 23
children and females are the most subject to this abnormal state of feeling, which it would appear | emanates from the peculiar delicacy of their moral ! and physical organization ; but this does not exempt individuals of the opposite sex from being similarly affected ; on the contrary, we find numerous ex-
amples of young men equally sensitive, timid, and abashed in society ; and how often do you see them blush deeply, if they are only asked a common- place question? This diseased sensibility frequently clings to the individual through life, and must be a drawback to a certain degree; such persons are constantly haunted with an idea of their own in- capability, which in general may be attributed to the bad effects of early education.
CHAPTER, III.
BLUSHING AN EVIDENCE OF DESIGN.
In Scripture history, in the books of Ezra and Ne- hemiah, both of whom were cotemporaries with Herodotus and Thucydides, the most ancient pro- fane writers on record, we find Blushing referred to as an illustration of shame.
Is it not most probable that it was with this in- tention the Creator of man endowed him with this peculiar faculty of exhibiting his internal emotions, or more properly speaking, of the internal emotions exhibiting themselves, for no individual blushes voluntarily ; it would, therefore, appear ‘to serve as a check on the conscience, and prevent the moral faculties from being infringed upon, or deviating from their allotted path—
= If there’s a power above us, (And that there is, all Nature cries aloud Through all her works,) he must delight in virtue ; And that which he delights in must be happy.”
There are many whom corporeal punishment would not restrain from doing wrong; still the
BLUSHING AN EVIDENCE OF DESIGN. 25
dread of remorse, of shame, or of being made blush hereafter for past conduct, will serve as a moral re- straint; in many cases it will control the individual from Violating the laws of morality, and thus affords us a beautiful instance of the design, wisdom, and goodness of Providence.
In one of the works just mentioned, Ezra, in the Consciousness of his guilt, exclaims, “ O my God! I am ashamed, and blush to lift up my head to thee, my God : for our iniquities are great over our head, and our trespasses is grown up into heaven.” In the only other instance in which the word is made use of in Scripture, as far as I am aware, it is in- tended to convey the same idea as the former, that is, to express shame.
The passage alluded is taken from the “ Jews’ judgment,” in the book of Jeremiah, and runs thus :—“ Nay, they were not at all ashamed, neither could they blush : therefore shall they fall amongst them that fall.”
But, unfortunately, civilization ‘or refinement Seems to have perverted the original intent, if my hypothesis be correct; fornow it is dificult to judge whether the blush be from an impulse of shame, or merely from a sensibility that is over-wrought ; and if my judgment does not err, it is much more fre- quently the effect of the latter than the former.
As I proceed with my investigation into the his- tory and peculiarities of the various tribes of the
E
26 BLUSHING AN EVIDENCE OF DESIGN.
human species, I shall find abundance of evidence in favour of this assertion. We shall find that man, as he progresses from the savage state, in which he obeys or follows the dictates of nature, to that of civilization, wherein he observes the rules of art, advances pari passu in the vices of its refinement. Who ever heard of an American savage blushing from morbid sensibility? and yet is he on this account the less liable to the impulse of shame or disgrace, according to his own views or interpreta- tions of such feelings? No! the change of colour in him is a genuine example of moral instinct —it is the result of a consciousness of guilt, and as such leads us to.infer, that it was with this intent the blush ` was originally designed by our Maker.
This will appear at variance with one of Paley’s doctrines, in which it is stated, that “ there exists no instinctive moral sense, or if it does, it is not to be distinguished from habit.”* Throughout this Essay I have endeavoured to show, that moral instinct, perfectly distinct from habit, does exist in man; and upon such a supposition I have founded some of my arguments.
* See Paley’s Moral and Political Philosophy.
CHAPTER IV.
DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN RACE.
Biumensacn has divided the human species into five varieties, as follows: the Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, and Malay; and as I shall have occasion, while following out the History of Blushing, to allude to the peculiarities of some of these varieties, I shall, for form’s sake, adopt his classification.
Blumenbach regards the Caucasian as the pri- mitive race, and in this variety he includes the Europeans (the natives of Lapland and Finland ex- cepted). The inhabitants of Western Africa, the Georgians, Circassians, Armenians, inhabitants of the Caucasus ; also the Turks, Persians; Arabians, the inhabitants of Northern Asia, &c.
This division of mankind he characterises as hav- ing a white skin, with a fair rosy tint, inclining to brown, red cheeks, hair black, brown, red, fair, &c. ; irides dark in those with brown skin ; light (blue, Srey, or greenish) in the fair or rosy complexioned ; Moral feelings and intellectual powers most ener-
98 NEGRO’S PECULIARITY.
getic, and susceptible of the highest degree of - development.
As the Mongolian, Armenian, and Malay va- rieties may be considered occupying an interme- diate space between the Negro and European, it seems unnecessary to give their characteristics just now. For our present purpose, it will be sufficient to contrast the peculiarities of the Ethiopian with those of the European. :
NEGRO S PECULIARITY.
The greater part of the natives of Africa belong to this variety. The skin and eyes are black, the hair black and woolly, the skull compressed, with a low, narrow, and slanting forehead, the jaws pro- jecting, prominent eyes, broad flat nose, and thick lips. ‘These are a few of the striking peculiarities of the African’s organization, which led Voltaire to suppose that they were a distinct species from all the rest, and induced Rousseau and his followers to describe the Negro and monkey as both belonging to the same species.
That the development of the intellectual faculties depends materially on the development and organi- zation of the brain, is a fact admitted by all. We
NEGROS PECULIARITY. 29
need not therefore wonder why the Negro, the Hot- tentot, the Calmuc, and Carib, with their low, Shelving foreheads, narrow temples, and large occi-
put, should be so much inferior in mental endow- ments to the European, whose organization we know to be by far more perfect. But that many of this tribe possess a natural goodness of heart, sense of honour, and warmth of disposition, is well known.
“ The inferiority of the dark to the white races (says Mr. Lawrence) is much more general and strongly marked in the powers of knowledge and reflection, the intellectual faculties, using that ex- pression in its most comprehensive sense, than in moral feelings and dispositions. Many of the for- mer, although little civilized, display an openness of heart, a friendly and generous disposition, an obser- vance of the point of honour, according to their own notions, from which nations more advanced in knowledge might often take a lesson with advantage.”
Nothing is more erroneous than the common no- tion, that all Africans have one and the same cha- racter. Want of animation does not characterize them, and faces are often met with which express the various emotions of the mind with great energy, according ‘to the experience of Dr. Winterbottom and others.
Indeed; we learn from the natural history of man, that every variety of his species in the known world
30 NEGRO'S PECULIARITY. »
have their moments of joy, of sorrow, of hope, fear, pride, shame, &c., to a greater or less degree, The most barbarous of the human tribe, as well as the most polished and civilized, seem to be en- dowed, more or less, with the third of those vital functions peculiar to man, that is, the function of sensation or feeling, “ which, operating on the en- cep: Jiewons system, causes the blemente of passions.”
Thus, we find the dark Ethiopian moved or ex- cited by those feelings, which are likewise common to the pallid Albino. The fiery-red spotted Indian displays the different shades of passion in an equal degree with his timid brethren, who lurk by the banks of the Missouri and Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico; and the internal feelings attendant on such emotions, even in the most savage, are not unfrequently evinced by variation of colour in the cheek, lighter or deeper as it may happen, and as we shall presently see.
It is only, says Humboldt, in white men that the instantaneous penetration of the dermoidal sys- tem by the blood can take place; that slight change of the colour of the skin, which adds so powerful an expression to the emotion of the soul. “ And how can those be trusted who know not how to blush ? says the European, in his inveterate hatred to the Negro and the Indian.” Both of these statements are much more plausible than correct; because the
NEGROS PECULIARITY. 31
increased redness peculiar to blushing is not ob- Served in the negro’s face, which nature seems to have screened by a dark veil—therefore, it has been taken for granted that he is incapable of blushing.
That such is not the case, we may infer from the following facts : First, That the dermoidal system beneath the colouring matter in the African’s cheek is permeated by thousands of capillary blood-ves- sels, and that it is not inferior in its organization to that of the white, as we can prove by anatomical demonstration. Second, That it is more in the in- tellectual powers, as has been already stated, than in the moral faculties, that this variety of the human Species is inferior to the European. Third, and Most positive, That the Rete Mucosum, which is the seat of colour, is not re-produced after a breach of surface, and that the cicatrix in Blacks ig therefore white. This is the generally received opinion. i
I have frequently’ observed a Negress, a servant in a gentleman’s family, who had one.of-these scars on the cheek, ‘which invariably became red when- ever she was abruptly spoken to, or charged with any trivial offence.”
The redness proceeded from the circumference towards a perfectly defined margin, beyond which not a single red line passed. This fact was care- fully observed, and seems interesting in a double
32 NEGRO S PECULIARITY.
point of view, first, as tending to prove that the organization of a cicatrix proceeds from the circum- ference towards the centre, not from below upwards, as we may infer from the radiation of the blood, which did not pass through the centre, its organiza- tion not being+as yet complete; and secondly, as affording convincing evidence that an African is not incapable of blushing, but that he, as well as the white, can give external evidence of the emotions of his mind, though in a less palpable manner than
the latter. Mr. Lawrence and Mr. Chevalier, in their lec-
tures delivered at the London College of Surgeons, in illustration of some of the preparations of John Hunters Museum, denied that the cicatrix in the Negro remains white ; their assertion is right in one sense of the word, as time, by allowing the parts to become re-organized, produces a dark shade of colour, but never so dark as the original. I have never observed it darker than the areola seen round the nipple of a woman who has born children, and I have seen it of a yellowish white for years after
it was perfectly formed. :
When a true born Negro blushes, his cheeks be- come darker still than natural, and this may be ac- counted for in the following manner :—
When the blood rises as far as the Rete Muco- sum, (which is naturally black in this variety,) in place of the redness becoming apparent, as it does
NEGRO’S PECULIARITY. 33
in the white, now from the dark veil placed before it, and through which it cannot pass, it only tends to render the surface of a deeper hue than before, for which purpose no colours are more adapted than black with a red ground, and M. Biett observes; | “ that the red tint which characterizes the exanthe- Matous diseases” in the Caucasian variety “ never exists in the Negro, in this case—on the contrary, the black tint is more evident than before.”
I have seen the phenomenon of blushing occur in several of the Hybrid species, to the same degree nearly as in the European. : i
One individual in particular, a Mulatto, the off Spring of a Negro and a white, whom I have fre- quently seen in this city, blushed as intensely as any European ; she was apparently about twenty years of age, and the phenomenon was usually produced without any assignable cause whatever, It was interesting to observe the peculiar cast it gave her countenance, for as long as you spoke to her, blush followed blush in quick succession, chas- ing cach other along the cheek, and one was no Sooner faded than another begun. Thus giving Convincing proof of the high-wrought sensibility of her feeling or imagination, and fully confuting the assertion of Humboldt, regarding the incapability of the “dark races” to give external evidence by blushing, of their deep internal feelings.
The differences between black and white men in
F
34 NEGRO’S PECULIARITY.
the texture of the Rete Mucosum or seat of colour, are distinctly noted by Blumenbach. He states, that “ the native reddish-white of the cutis, the in- ner layer of the skin, shines through the transpa- rent outer coverings in the white races, while in the dark the cutaneous pigment is seated in the Rete Mucosum; the epidermis, although pale, manifestly partaking of the same tint.” This fully corrobor- ates what I have said, as to the Negro becoming blacker when blushing than natural; for it seems very evident that when the intense red colour of the blood spreads itself beneath this dark pigment, pe- culiar to the African, it must render the shade deeper than it was originally.
There are many examples of the brown and yel- low varieties belonging to the Mongolian, American, and Malay divisions, of the genus homo, in whom blushing has been noticed. Thus Forster states, | that in the Otaheitan women, of a brownish cast, | you may easily distinguish a spreading blush. And | Dampier observes of the Tunquinese, who are of a tawny Indian hue, that you may perceive a blush or change of colour in many of their faces, on any sudden surprise or passion.
We have, also, instances recorded by Blumen- bach and Winterbottom, of Mulattoes having red hair, freckled skin, and being capable of varying the colour of their cheek when excited.
ALBINO’S PECULIARITY.
The peculiarities of the Albinos, that singular de- Scription of the human race, are particularly worthy of our observation. These strange beings, though often born of Negro parents, are their very antipodes, if I may use the term, with regard to the colour of the skin, hair, eyes, &c. Their skin possesses an un- natural white shade or tint, their hair is milk-white, and the eyes are red or grey.
Blumenbach describes the iris as of a pale rose colour, and the pupil intensely red, exactly simi- lar to those of ferrets and white rabbits. And Voltaire briefly states their peculiarities in the fol- lowing words: “ Leur blancheur n’est pas la nôtre ; rien d'incarnat, nul mélange de blanc et de brun, c'est une couleur de linge, ou plutôt de cire blan- chie; leurs cheveux, leurs sourcils, sont de la plus belle et de la plus douce soie; leurs yeux ne resem- blent en rien à ceux des autres hommes, mais ils approchent beaucoup des yeux de perdrix.”— Essai sur les Meurs, Introduction.
The characters of the Albino, says Mr. Lawrence, in his interesting Lectures on Man, arise from a deficiency of the colouring principle, common to the skin, hair, and eyés of all other men. Thus | the former has the hue which its cellular and vas- cular contexture produces; the hair is reduced to its
SS SETTER Tag 2 tebe dl DEAD A ti aa BS Maoin à |
oer diea en ene ree ashen beg ” = |
\i
Ñ
36 ALBINO S PECULIARITY,
simple organic groundwork; and in the eyes, which are entirely destitute of pigmentum, the colour of the iris depends on the fine vessels which are so nu- merous in its composition, and that of the pupil on the still greater number of capillaries, which al- most entirely form the choroid membrane. The state of the eyes is the principal source of inconvenience. The absence of the black pigment, which has the important office of absorbing superfluous portions of light, renders the eye preternaturally sensible of this stimulus. Even the glare of open day affects this organ painfully, hence the eyelids are closed; but they have superior power of vision in twilight, dusk, or imperfect darkness.
There are several examples recorded of European children having all the characteristic marks of the African Albino. When this occurs in the Caucasian division, it is generally looked upon as a disease, and is fancifully called Albino Skin—whereas, in reality, the European does not differ in any of his peculiarities from the African Albino; and we have sufficient evidence to show that this Lusus Nature is not exclusively confined to the Ethiopian variety ; for individuals possessing the same leuccethiopic pe- culiarity and constitution, have been met with in various parts of the globe, from the North Pole to the Torrid Zone. They have been frequently seen by Dubois and Captain Cook, on the islands and shores of the Pacific, and amongst the Hindoo
ALBINO S PECULIARITY. 87
races. There are, also, several European examples recorded by De Sausseure, Buzzi, Helvetius, Mau- pertius, and Dr. Traill.
The same delicacy of constitution that distin- Suishes the African is likewise common to the English Albino, as we may perceive from the fol- lowing interesting account given by Dr. Traill, of one of the three he met with.
“The oldest of these Albinos is nine years of age; of a delicate constitution; slender, but well formed both in person and in features; his appetite has always been bad; he frequently complains of a dull pain in his forehead; his skin is exceedingly fair; his hair flaxen and soft; his cheeks have very little of the rose in them; the iris and pupil of his eyes are of a bright red colour, reflecting in some situations an opaline tinge; he cannot endure the light of the sun; when desired to look up, his eyelids are in constant motion, and he is incapable of fixing his eye steadily on any object, as is observed in those labouring under some kinds of slight ophthalmia, but in him is unaccompanied by tears. His mother Says, that his tears never flow in the coldest wea- ther; but when vexed or his feelings are hurt, they are shed abundantly. He goes to school, but ge- Nerally retires to the darkest part of it to read his lesson; his disposition is very gentle, and he is not deficient in intellect.”
It is singular that all the European Albinos re-
38 ALBINO ’S PECULIARITY.
corded by these writers were of the male sex; and what is still more strange, the female offspring of the same families were entirely destitute of the Albino peculiarities of their brothers. However, I have seen an Albiness, in an obscure village of this country, born of white parents, having all the striking characteristics of her tropical brother- hood, and extremely sensitive; she appeared to be naturally timid and bashful, and her face became suffused with blood whenever her companions teazed or ridiculed her.
Some writers, Blumenbach, Winterbottom, &e., have endeavoured to prove that this class labour under a disease which they refer to the Cachexiz, and consider it akin to leprosy. But, as far as my experience goes, I consider, with Mr. Lawrence, that these views are completely incorrect. “ All their functions are executed as in other persons. They are born of healthy parents, occur among the robust and hardy members of savage tribes; and a similar deviation takes place in many wild animals —the rabbit, ferret, mouse, horse, &c.”’
The fact of Albinos being prone to blush, has not been mentioned by any of their historians; but I have observed it in other instances, besides that just related, and particularly in two indivi- duals, a male and female, who were exhibited in Paris several years ago; they possessed all the common characteristics of their tribe, if it may be
ALBINO’'S PECULIARITY. 39
80 called, and I never witnessed a more interesting example of the manner in which the blush rises and overspreads the cheek than these individuals present- ed. Their sensibility was easily excited, and so deep ~ felt was their emotion, when in any degree moved, that not only the cheeks, but the ears and neck, par- ticularly around the Thyroid gland, became affected. The breast and irides also seemed to participate in the general sympathy. Thenatural dead whiteness of the skin enabled the observer to detect the slightest alteration in colour on the cheek from its original hue, and we could observe the blush rise to the sur- face in a small defined or circumscribed spot, not over the malar bone, like the purple hectic flush, but Over the parotidean plexus of nerves, which con- tribute so materially to the expression of passion in the human face.
Thence it proceeded, diverging in radii to the cir- cumference, until it formed almost a perfect circle.
There was an evident line of demarcation between the blush of the cheek and that of the neck and breast. Ina word, one was not a continuation of the other, for the blood-red colour in both regions being the effect of the same impulse, was generated and rose to the surface simultaneously.
This does not appear to be the common progress of blushing ; it is more frequently observed spread- ing from the circumference towards the centre, and not the reverse, as just stated, or rising equally over
40 ALBINO 'S PECULIARITY.
every part of the cheek at the same moment. In this case, the surface round the Thyroid gland pre- sented the same aspect precisely as the cheek. -The ears appeared perfectly florid, and the irides natu- rally red in the Albino ; in the present instance that redness invariably increased while blushing.
These individuals appeared to be unusually sensi- tive, for in the course of twenty minutes they , blushed deeply several times. The slightest attempt to examine their peculiarities invariably excited this phenomenon.
It was extremely interesting to observe the various and alternating casts of expression which the rise and fall of colour produced in the countenances of these Albinos. At one.time the cheek presented the appearance of a sheet of blood rising or spread upon a field of snow, and the next moment it assumed its original sickly white, or bloodless colour, as if it had never been permeated by any red vessels whatever. \ I was informed by their keeper that they were not | Europeans, but Africans by birth, and had been at | this time several years in Europe. |
Will these facts not go some way in proving my assertion that the dark races have the power of ex- hibiting their feelings by blushing as well as the white. There is only a negative proof against this assertion, 2. €., the red colour being invisible in the former, and notin the latter. But as we have suffi- cient proof of a white Negro (Albino) being ca-
THE LIGHT-COLOURED RACES. 41
pable of blushing as intensely as any European, it S but fair to argue that a Gold Coast ebon-coloured African has the very same power.
1
Ina subsequent part of this Essay, when treating of the tissues engaged in blushing, as the skin, capillary blood-vessels, cerebral and sympathetic nerves, &e., I may resume my inquiry into the pecu- liarities of this anomalous class of beings. In the Mean time I shall endeavour to trace out the history of the phenomenon as far as the Caucasian variety of man is concerned, for in this division we are told that itis most highly developed ; in short, that blush- ing is an exclusive privilege belonging to it—an in- ference which, as we have seen, is not perfectly inductive.
SS ane a gg eae ee ee AE
THE LIGHT-COLOURED RACES.
Blumenbach is inclined to believe that the primi- tive form of the human race was that which belongs to the Caucasian variety, of which the most beauti- ful specimens are now exhibited by the Georgians,
ircassians, Turks, Greeks, and some Europeans.
The greatest mental powers have been bestowed on this variety, and they have discovered nearly all the arts and sciences; indeed, almost all our literature and knowledge has been derived from the same duarter. These nations have the most intelligent and expressive countenances, and the most beautiful
G
42 THE LIGHT-COLOURED RACES.
bodily proportions. They occupy the middle re- gions of the globe, while its extremities are -filled by others.*
As we advance in civilization we find the human mind gradually progressing in the development of its moral and intellectual acquirements, and that at each step we advance, those faculties common to us with the brute, gradually disappear, and give place to the higher callings of the mind.
The instinct common to us in our early days of existence with the lower animals, and also pre- dominant in man in the savage state, is replaced by Reason. Civilization develops this faculty which so exalts our species, which enables our con- science to discriminate between vice and virtue, which constantly urges us to obey its dictates; and what impulse can be more noble than that emanat- ing from the dictates of reason ?
The phenomenon I am endeavouring to illustrate is evidently an attendant upon Reason, and accord- ing as the latter is cultivated, so the former becomes developed.
In savage life instinct is more vigorous than rea- son ; hence we cannot expect to find our subject so frequently illustrated in this tribe as in civilized beings, but as no one will deny that the savage pos- sesses reason, therefore there is no evidence of his being incapable of blushing. This faculty, which elevates us above the rest of organic nature, lies dor-
* Lawrence’s Lectures on Man.
THE LIGHT-COLOURED RACES. 43
Mant or is wholly uncultivated in savage man, and Where this is the case, its attributes, as a natural con- Sequence, must remain undeveloped or unobserved.*
The Circassian women, who are so celebrated for their beauty, and so sought after by the keepers of the Seraglios of Persia and Turkey, although not Perfectly civilized, are occasionally seen to blush deeply, according to Lady M. Wortley Montague’s account.
It is even considered an acquisition by the Sultan, as giving proof of their not being ultra barbarous, and those females who are thus capable of exhibiting their internal emotions, invariably
bring a higher price than their less susceptible Sisterhood.
In these people reason is to a certain degree culti- vated—it predominates over instinct—conscience follows, and blushing is the natural result of both.
Advancing still nearer towards the centre of civilization, we perceive the mind and its faculties becoming highly developed. Reason now triumph- antly exerts its influence over these faculties—the
* If there be any species of human beings not gifted with reason, it is, most assuredly, the wretched inhabitants of Carin- thia and the Valais, known by the name of Cretins, in whom their exists the lowest degree of mental debasement. They ap- Pear to have no other enjoyment than eating and sleeping; the SWinish propensities are highly developed in them ; and their in- Sensibility is often so great that they will not even obey the calls
of nature, There is little difference between these people and idiots,
44 THE LIGHT-COLOURED RACES.
intellectual endowments are exercised and refined, for the well being of social existence, and itis by this concentration of mental power, that civilized man feels his own superiority over the rest of creation.
But as we advance in reaping the advantages and virtues of civilization, we are not wholly exempt from the vices of its refinement; it is an overstraining of this refinement which oftentimes makes a vice of a virtue by perverting the original intent of nature.
In civilized society we find a variety of mental and bodily ailments which are unknown in savage life. Let us inquire whence does this arise? Is it the effect of climate, manners, mode of living, or is it an inherent quality of civilization itself? Why, the fact per se is sufficient to prove that the rules of art, the mainspring of civilization, cannot be indiscriminately obeyed without exert- ing a deleterious influence over the corporeal func- tions and intellectual faculties of man. For in- stance, we seldom hear of an Indian squaw dying in child-bed, or of her savage husband becoming mad about religion, politics, or any sudden reverse of fortune. No, these are a few of the taxes which we pay to civilization for the very numerous and invaluable gifts conferred upon us by means of the cultivation of the higher faculties.
It is a law in nature, that according as the mental or animal faculties are exercised, so are they developed, and that the offspring of indivi-
THE LIGHT-COLOURED RACES. 45
duals inherit more or less of the predominant qualities of their parents. In the civilized state the Powers of the mind are chiefly cultivated, to the Comparative extinction of the animal propensities, and according to the above law, the mind of a Philosopher’s child must be essentially different from the mind of one of savage, or even peasant pa- Tentage. It is true, that the same intuitive instinct which the lower animals also possess, is common to. both during the period of their long infancy ; but the difference lies in the still dormant faculties or propensities which both have inherited from their respective parents. To the parent of the one be- longs vigour, and strength of body, that exerts to a certain degree a salutary influence over the mind, but to these must be added the full indulgence of unchecked animal passions, which must neces- sarily control that influence, and prevent it from having its due effect.
To the parent of the other belong all those sen- Sations and feelings which intellectual refinement is capable of producing. Now, these faculties, as yet in embryo, mainly depend upon early educa- tion, both as to quantity and quality, for the cha- Tacter of their future development. The mind of the savage has little to lose from neglect on this score, as in his case it is the physical powers that are principally to be exercised in after life, and consequently from his cradle upwards every care is taken to inure him to all manner of hardships.
46 THE LIGHT-COLOURED RACES.
But it is very different with that of the civi- lized being. From the prospect of the status he is to hold in life, and the part he will have to perform in it in manhood, it is necessary that his mind, from the first dawning until it is capable of judging for itself, should be cultivated and trained in that path which may lead the nobler faculties to the highest state of intellectual development. His temperament and disposition are for the most part derived from one or other of his parents, whether sanguineous and bold, nervous and sensitive, or me- lancholic and timid. His sensorium is, by inheri- tance, extremely susceptible of mental impressions, and as early impressions are the most lasting, these which take deepest root in the mind, it becomes incumbent on the parent to exert his judgment and discrimination in the admission of all such to so sacred a sanctuary.
From the earliest infancy of a child, you can perceive the bent of his disposition, and whatever that may be, it will show itself by various indescrib- able ways. Ifit be quick and sensitive, you may easily observe the susceptibility of the mind, and the keenness with which certain impressions are felt ; if you watch this child as he grows on towards manhood, you will perceive this sense of feeling gradually ripening itself, and if uneducated or unchecked by moral training in its early state, it becomes to a certain degree a mental disease, for in what other light can we look upon that state of
THE LIGHT-COLOURED RACES. 47
morbid sensibility which we daily meet with in Social intercourse. It is this state which ren- ders him timid of his own powers or capability, that prevents him from exercising properly those faculties with which nature may have endowed him, and of the possession of which he is perfectly Conscious—still from a moral debility, and inward dread of failure, these intellectual powers, possessed by every rational being to a certain degree, are nipt in the bud, they bloom and die, as it were, in the same moment.
When such persons grow up and mingle in Society, they soon perceive the baneful effects of their acute sensibility, they then endeavour to con- quer it, when it has taken too firm a hold, and if their attempts are damped by failure, which not un- frequently happens, from that very dread of their own weakness just mentioned, they fall into the opposite extremes, as those of recklessness and libertinism.
It is this morbid state of feeling we see so fre- quently excite the uncalled-for blush, and which we must attribute to an irritability of the sen- sorium arising from an over refinement, and want of early moral education. In society there are a variety of causes that may excite a blush, as acute sensibility, shame, &c., for which reason it may be as well to classify them, and treat of each in the order of its arrangement.
CHAPTER V.
DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF THE BLUSH.
For the sake of simplicity I shall here adopt the arrangement observed in the-Chapter on Sensibility, and merely divide the subject into two distinct species, True and False. Under the head of the True Blush we may place all those changes or va-
riations in colour which take place on the cheek, having some good and substantial moral cause for their production, as an infringement upon the feel- ings by the recollection of some past malheur or disgrace, the convictions of conscience, &e. Under the head of the second or False Blush may be placed all those which have no other assignable cause for their production than that of an extreme state of morbid sensibility, over which reason and the moral powers seem to have no control whatever; for as I have already stated, no individual blushes of his own free will, as he knows it must place him, to a certain degree, in a painful position. I shall now make a few observations on the first division of
blushing.
TRUE BLUSH.
In a former Chapter I have endeavoured to demonstrate an evidence of design in Providence, in the subject under consideration. I have there Stated that the probable intent of the Creator, in | endowing man with this peculiar property, was, that | the soul might have sovereign power of displaying in the cheek, that part of the human body which is uncovered by all nations, the various internal emo- tions of the moral feelings whenever they are in- fringed upon either by accident or design, and that this precaution had the salutary effect of enabling our fellow-beings to know whenever we transgressed | | or violated those rules which should be held sacred, \ as being the bonds that unite man and man in the || civilized state of social existence. Moreover, that A our being conscious of this involuntary power which the soul possesses over the agents of our volition, might serve as a moral check upon the inclination, and to a certain degree prevent us from deviating from the prescribed rules of morality.
In this light, we must certainly admit the utility, and even the necessity of blushing in society, that is, of the true blush, which I am now considering ;
for when an individual consciously infringes upon the prescribed laws of society, he deserves to make
at least a moral atonement for his culpable trans- gression.
TRUE BLUSH.
Let us take a familiar example, in illustration of
what has been defined the true blush. Suppose an individual, myself for instance, to have stolen or borrowed from other authors that which was their property, and by so doing, am enabled to acquire merit under false pretences, after some time
my plagiarism is detected, I am then accused, by some kind critic, of my delinquency, and stripped of my borrowed plumes, still my inclination endea- vours to conceal that which it is my duty to ac- knowledge. There is a rebellion excited by this infringement upon the laws of equity, between the will and the moral faculties, and if I am not dead to all sense of honour and shame, conscience tri- umphs, it rebukes me for my transgression, and as an atonement for the offence, Z blush deeply, in the presence of my accusers. By this means the soul and
conscience reflect upon the cheek theimpression which has been made on them, and thus give convincing evi- dence, externally, of their own deep-felt emotion. Here I transgress, although perfectly conscious of doing wrong, and even of the probability of being afterwards detected, and consequently of the shame or disgrace which must follow. It is not morbid sensibility that produces the blush in this case; on the contrary, there is an evident and salutary cause for its appearance.
The following is another example of the blush of
TRUE BLUSH. oil
conscience, as observed in a female in the state of “ somnambulism.”
I happened to be present at one of Baron Du Potet’s exhibitions of Animal Magnetism, when there was a young lady manipulated on by M. le Baron, and after some five or ten minutes had elapsed from the commencement of the operation, this interest- ing young woman apparently resigned herself into the arms of Morpheus. We were informed by the Baron that she was now in a deep slumber, and dead to all external impressions. Some of the spec- tators appearing sceptical as to the truth of this as- Sertion, the Baron, in order to convince them of its accuracy, pinched the girl’s arm, and pricked it with pins in several places, to which she certainly ap- peared quite insensible ; but it was remarked that a fly creeping on the cheek caused all the muscles of that side of the face to move. The Baron was then requested to give an explanation of this “ mes- meric trance;” to which he replied, that the “science” was not far enough advanced as yet, to enable him to give a satisfactory explanation of the manner in which this wonderful effect was produced.
The girl still lying in the same state of apparent Slumber, a discussion arose amongst the spectators, when one gentleman observed rather sharply, “ that he had no doubt but the young lady herself could give a very satisfactory explanation of the mystery, if she wished.” An intense blush, in which not only
52 TRUE BLUSH.
the face, but the neck, chest, and ears of the mag- netised lady were engaged, immediately succeeded this remark; it was a satisfactory answer to the gentleman’s charge of deception on the girl’s part, and needs no further comment. It is another striking illustration of the soul and conscience being ever on the watch to side with truth and justice against the deceitfulness of the human heart.
There is another variety of the true blush pro- duced by causes very different from those of the foregoing, and which I may call the blush of feeling. A few months since, I happened to be conversing with a professional gentleman about the different layers of the human skin, and the peculiarities in this respect of the Negro, Albino, and European. He in- vited me to his residence to see some lithograph drawings of the same, which he said were pretty good. I accordingly went, and he produced three very beautiful sets of drawings, exhibiting the dif- ferent layers of the skin. I asked by whom were they executed; he replied that the first two sets were drawn by a very interesting lecturer on sur- gery, and his son, several years ago, both of whom were now dead. I observed that he omitted men- tioning the artist of the third set, which was cer- tainly the best of the three, and jokingly said, “ these were done by yourself, I presume, Mr.——” “Oh no,” he replied, with a forced smile, “ they were done by my son, who, poor fellow, is also dead.”
TRUE BLUSH. 53
A deep and burning blush followed these words, Which came and went several times before his emotion seemed to subside.
This gentleman was upwards of sixty years of age, and although time had done his external work effectually by whitening the hair and furrowing the cheek ; still the internal feelings seemed as keen and susceptible as if endowed with all the buoy- ancy of youth.
Here the irrepressible blush revealed the hidden anguish of the bereaved parent, and clearly de- Monstrates the impossibility of the will ever being able to overcome or control the genuine emotions of the Soul. |
There is an intimate relationship between this form of blushing and lachrymation, or the shedding of tears, produced by sorrow. Both are the emo- tions of sympathy arising from very nearly the same Cause, and according to the popular notion, give Internal relief by lightening the burthen which Oppresses the heart. _
If the stimulus which produced the blush in the Case just related, was continued—the memory still holding the image, in vivid colours, before the Sensorium, a train of ideas would be engendered, Tecalling the past more vividly, and retaining its impression in the imagination. The mind becomes worked upon—there is a confliction amongst its feelings—the blush deepens, and finally the tears
54 TRUE BLUSH.
are produced in more or less abundance, according to the intensity of the mental paroxysm.
I shall add one more illustration of the blush of feeling, as evinced by a French lady far advanced in years. She was a woman of keen sensibility, and highly cultivated mind ; but from reverse of fortune was compelled to descend from her former station in life, to live in obscurity and not unfrequently in want. I heard her relate the history of her career one evening before a few friends. She at- tempted to assume a sort of hardened indifference to her vicissitudes of fortune; but, notwithstanding the wrinkles of age being stamped upon her brow, and her hair silvered by time, her feeling seemed as acute as it might have been in her earliest years, for ever and anon we could see the flash of the soul’s emotion bursting through her cheek, with its most powerful expression, whenever she touched upon any part of her history tending to form a contrast between her present and past station in the world. The colour rose and fell upon her cheek in exact harmony with the light and pathetic passages of her narra- tive, and with the same intensity as is observable in youth.
Perhaps it will be expected that the blush of modesty or bashfulness, so frequently observed in the young people of both sexes, when first brought into society, should come under this head ; but such
an arrangement would not be in accordance with
FALSE BLUSH. 55
my views. It may, indeed, be very interesting to See a young lady in a drawing room blushing for Some trivial cause, as the blush invariably heightens the charms of beauty; and as it is, in this instance, Considered to be a test of purity and innocence, Many fond parents will, perhaps, coincide with the Sultan’s ideas respecting the fair Circassians, and think it rather an acquisition than otherwise in their daughters; but I am of opinion that a blush is no test whatever of either purity or innocence, for many libertines and prostitutes may be seen to blush as deeply as individuals of the most exalted purity and virtue.
FALSE BLUSH.
If it was with the intent of giving evidence of those emotions of the mind, produced by shame or an eruption of feeling, that we were endowed by
Tovidence with the power of blushing, we must Necessarily consider all other instances in which this phenomenon is produced, as an example of What I define to be the False or Deceptive Blush. In all cases it emanates from that state of morbid Sensibility which I have treated of in a former Chapter of this Essay, and the remarks that have
56 FALSE BLUSH.
been there made, will be found likewise applicable to this form of blushing.
This part of our subject is fertile in examples ; old and young, male and female, bear ample testi- mony to the accuracy of my statement. It may be observed in all grades and stations of civilized beings, from the first dawning of reason till its extinction in old age; it is hereditary, it pervades entire families; it restrains some, it infuriates others, at being thus made subordinate to the mental feel- ings, and wherever it once takes root, like the Old Man of the Sea, it clings to the individual through life with a resolute and imperishable grasp. In childhood we never blush, for then we are merely animals of instinct, the same as in the fatuity of old age. In the former the reasoning powers have not “as yet developed themselves, in the latter they have passed away. In both conditions we are dead to the moral and intellectual world, and should a glimmering of either of these powers exhibit it- self in the morning of our existence, it must be attributed solely to that docile instinct which js common to us with the lower animals, which renders a dog sagacious, and enables him to judge between right and wrong.
What more striking illustration of the foregoing can we have than the fact, that the same exhibition (a human execution) which yields so much pleasure and amusement to a child, will cause the nurse who
FALSE BLUSH. o7
bears it in her arms to give evidence of her in- ternal emotion by weeping or fainting away, and perhaps this same child, in a few years afterwards, fannot look upon a similar exhibition without fol- Owing the example of its nurse. This clearly proves my former assertion, that the blush is evi- dently a result of reason, and cannot take place Without its impulse, else why is the congenital idiot incapable of exhibiting this phenomenon? he Can weep, sigh, and laugh, all of which may € represented in the inferior animals, and con- sequently do not require the impulse of reason for their production; but_he has never been seen to blush, his defective organization preventing him from enjoying any other than a vegetative existence.
This habit of blushing from morbid sensibility is as common with young men as with young women, and although it is considered a beauty in the latter in- Stance, we cannot view it in any other light than as a disease, when it frequently occurs in men who have arrived at the years of maturity. In this case the bane of it is deeply felt by those who are under
its influence, and notwithstanding its poesied beauty, Seems to be looked upon as a drawback in male Society, tending materially to curb the natural Impulse of the individual.
There are peculiar constitutions more prone to
blush than others, and it will be found as a general I
PEI
58 FALSE BLUSH.
rule, that individuals of a sanguine temperament are much more subject to this disorder than those of a lymphatic or melancholic constitution. The eloquent Richerand gives the following graphic description of the sanguineous temperament.
“If the heart and vessels which carry the red blood through every part, are of predominant activity, the pulse will be sharp, frequent, and regular—the complexion ruddy, the countenance animated, the shape good, the forms softened though distinct, the flesh of tolerable consistence, moderate plump- ness, the hair fair, and inclining to chesnut; the nervous susceptibility will be lively, and attended with rapid susceptibility, that is to say, that being easily affected by the impressions of outward ob- jects, men of this temperament will pass rapidly from one idea to another; conception will be quick, memory prompt, the imagination lively; they will be addicted to the pleasures of the table and of love; will enjoy a health seldom interrupted by disease; and all their diseases, and these slight, modified by the temperament, will have their seat
principally in the circulatory system.” “ Inconstancy
and levity are, in fact, the chief attributes of men of this temperament ; excessive variety appears to be to them a necessity as much as an enjoyment; good, generous, feeling, quick, impassioned, delicate in love, but fickle; disgust in them follows close upon enjoyment; meditating desertion in the midst of
FALSE BLUSH. 59
the most intoxicating caresses, they make their escape from beauty, at the very moment she thought to have bound them by indissoluble chains. In vain he whom nature has endowed with a san- guine temperament, will think to renounce the pleasures of the senses, to take fixed and lasting likings, to attain, by profound meditation, to the most abstract truths; mastered by his physical dis- Positions, he will be for ever driven back to the pleasures from which he flies, to the inconstancy Which is his lot; more fitted to the brilliant pro- ductions of wit (as Voltaire) than the sublime con- ceptions of genius (as Newton, who was of a lym- Phatic constitution). His blood, which a vast lung impregnates plentifully with atmospherical oxy- Sen, flows freely in very dilatable canals, and this facility in the distribution and course of the humours is, at once, the cause and the image of the happy dispositions of his mind. However, the History of Henry IV., of Louis XIV., of Regnard, and of Mi- rabeau proves that, to the extreme love of pleasure, Sanguine men join, when circumstances require it, Steat elevation of thought and character; and can bring into action the highest talents in every de- partment.”
Individuals of a consumptive or scrofulous habit are also particularly prone to blushing. Their Smooth transparent skin, fair hair, and rosy com- Plexion, denotes the delicacy of their organization,
60 FALSE BLUSH.
and their great susceptibility of both external and internal impressions.
There isa mental character (says Dr. Macartney) belonging to the scrofulous habit, which more strik- ingly indicates the peculiar state of the constitu- tion than all other signs. Scrofulous persons in general exhibit no mental energy, but a gentleness and amiability of disposition, a refinement and judgment in matters of taste, and a purity of moral feeling, which is sometimes so remarkable as to place them, in these points, far beyond the scale, and even beyond the conception, of the mass of mankind. In these the vascular system is weak, the vessels are small, the blood is deficient in quan- tity, and is, I think, imperfectly organized.
Dr. Macartney has thus beautifully described the mental character of the scrofulous individual, and this description applies equally to the generality of those persons who become victims to consumption at an early age. The transient flushes to which individuals of this habit are so subject is not owing to a redundancy of blood in the system; on the contrary, it is a striking evidence of the weakness and frailty of the constitution, and its diseased susceptibility of every impression whatever.
Persons of red hair and florid skin are extremely subject to this peculiarity, but these should come,
properly speaking, under the head of “ Sanguineous Temperament.”
FALSE BLUSH. 61
I knew a family (including father and mother) who were particularly liable to blushing, with one Single exception, the second son, aged eighteen, who was labouring under Cyanosis, or the Blue Disease, of which he ultimately died.
It was curious to observe this individual when at all agitated, to which he seemed equally susceptible with the rest of the family; his cheeks, instead of becoming red, assumed a deeper or more purple hue than before, so that in reality he evinced his feelings by an alternation of colour on the cheek, although it could not, strictly speaking, be called a blush. Were I permitted to use the term “ blue, or Violet blush,” then I might express my meaning more clearly. However, the fact proves, that the sedative | influence of the carbonised or un-zreated blood did ` not retard this fluid from responding to the mental emotions, and although it is supposed that persons affected with Cyanosis in some respects resemble cold-blooded animals, this shows that they are also capable of evincing internal feeling as well as any other of their fellow-beings.
THE DECEPTIVE BLUSH.
Lis reference to Medical Jurisprudence.
Blushing, or any alteration in the colour of the cheek, from its natural state, should not be indis- cruminately considered as an evidence of guilt. No- thing could be more delusive or erroneous than such a supposition, especially without taking into consideration the general aspect of the features, and the marked difference always observable in them between the blush of conscience, and that of weak- ness or irritability.
In a foregoing page, I have shown that there are many individuals who change colour without any apparent cause whatever, it being merely the effect of inordinate sensibility, therefore, were we to judge of its being in such instances the result of an infringement upon the moral or social laws, it would be extremely culpable, and would display-a total ignorance of the laws of human nature. Yet, how frequently do we hear learned counsel at the bar, by strong language, endeavouring to excite the feelings of the accused; should any variation in colour take place, (and how often do the innocent turn pale or become suffused, from the mere dread ‘of the accu- sation,) the eloquent declaimer proceeds, exulting in
THE DECEPTIVE BLUSH. 63
the plenitude of his oral power, and the effect it may have produced, to direct the attention of the presiding judge and jury to the varying counte- nance of the excited and agitated prisoner; still vehemently appealing to their judgment, if the fluctuating colour, and trembling aspect of the face, was not an illustration of remorse of conscience, and convincing evidence of the culprit’s guilt.
The man who thus takes advantage of the weak- ness of human nature, must be guilty of either of two charges; first, that of being ignorant of the manner by which the mind can be affected, under Certain circumstances, and that some individuals are So constituted as to be more susceptible of impres- sions than others, so that the innocent may often appear the guilty ; and secondly, though conscious of the foregoing, nevertheless, to gain his point, he converts the knowledge of this fact to his own purposes, and endeavours by harrowing up the feelings to intimidate and criminate the innocent.
If guilty of the former, it is to be regretted that he who studies human law, and makes that his profession, does not blend with it a knowledge of the laws of his Divine Maker, as evinced in moral and physical man; and if the latter be true, we have another melancholy example of the depravity of human nature, which leads an individual to en- deavour to prove the innocent guilty, merely because he is paid to do so. :
64 HECTIC FLUSH.
Such a state of things is not much better than the barbarous custom of former ages, when the supposed murderer was made to touch the body of the deceased in open court, before the gaze of hundreds, and upon the result of this experiment depended the life or death of the prisoner. From the foregoing I conclude, that an alteration of colour upon the cheek, either in public or private society, should not always be regarded as crimi- nating the individual concerned ; in some instances it may do so, but the knowledge that the blush may be as frequently deceptive, from idiosyncrasy, ke. warrants our charitable maxim to acquit the guilty rather than condemn the innocent.
THE HECTIC FLUSH AND FLUSH OF RAGE.
Their difference from the True Blush, in which the Countenance droops.
HECTIC FLUSH.
Any individual at all observant can readily re- cognize the peculiar flush of the consumptive—the colour is not diffused over the cheek as in ordinary instances, it is generally confined to a certain spot, and this purple patch situated over the malar bone,
HECTIC FLUSH. 65
with the delicately pale halo that surrounds it;nis looked upon by the physician as the harbinger of approaching death.
The hectic flush is the result of an effort of or- ganic instinct, and not of mental emotion ; it comes and goes momentarily, without the mind being at all affected ; it is, perhaps, what Cullen might have calledan illustration of the “Vis Medicatrix Naturæ,” and beautifully demonstrates the instinctive pro- perties of organic nature. In these instances the aspect of the features does not become changed ; the countenance retains, with the exception of the Change of colour in the cheek, its natural appear- ance or expression, so different from what takes place in blushing from a sensorial impulse.
Every one engaged in the pursuit of medicine must have frequently observed this scintillating hectic flush, presaging death to its unhappy victim, and invariably burning brightest (like the light of an expiring taper) as it draws nearer to its close; and who that has ever seen the consumptive but knows they are. generally the brightest and fairest Specimens of creation.
_ If there be one of a family more engaging or
. more blessed by nature than the rest, this is the
individual that is sure to die. There is a gentleness
and refinement in all his actions, in all his sayings,
and in all his movements, that wins you to his
friendship. You feel proud of the intimacy of K
66 HECTIC FLUSH.
one who seems perfect—you gather all that falls from his lips, and treasure it in your bosom—you feel as if you knew the world, but till now knew it on its dark side only—a new existence seems to dawn upon you, emanating from the society of one who appears to be all that is pure and exalted.
There is an ease and chastity in his every expres- sion, that magnifies his worth tenfold in your esti- mation. The theories of the degeneration of man- kind fade from your memory, and you agree with the philosopher, “that man thinks in the past a perfection which never did exist.” Day by day passes on ; there is a spirituality in your ideas, that has entered there as if by imbibition, and you feel cleansed from those that were foul and gross in nature. At length you observe a pallidness of countenance in your friend, but this you ascribe to the cast of thought ; it grows on gradually until it assumes a sort of transparency, “splendidior vitro;” the teeth partake of the same hue, the nails incur- vate, and the veins look blue and shadowy.
A small circumscribed blush at length rises on the cheek, (the insidious forerunner of death,) and completes this beautiful and melancholy picture. An illustration of his soul is to be seen in the purity and serenity of his countenance—he is perfectly unconscious of his approaching end, and of the heart-rending sorrow his state entails on his friends and relatives, perhaps planning some new excur-
FLUSH OF RAGE. 67
sion only a few hours before death itself takes place. The blush, still the same sleeping and waking, pre- sides over him with miser care. The heart-broken mother steals to his bedside while asleep—she sees her beloved son blooming on the verge of death—a death that she knows to be inevitable—she hears him breathe still tranquilly, yet she dare not hope —she looks again upon the child of her bosom—
“ As still he lay, and on his thin-worn cheek A purrs HECTIC play’d, like dying day On the snow tops of distant hills ; 5
There is a stillness around, which has a semblance to the hush of death—the unhappy parent seizes a mirror and holds it to the lips of her child—but, alas! the last life-drop has passed on to eternity—
all that was mortal having breathed itself away in one soft melancholy sigh.
FLUSH OF RAGE.
The flush of Rage is as familiar to all asthe blush of shame, and although the variation of colour is nearly the same in both cases, still the feelings by which this change is excited are, as every one knows, directly opposed to each other. In the former the crimson hue of the cheek is the effect of
68 FLUSH OF RAGE.
an animal passion ; in the latter itis solely the result of a moral or spiritual impulse. The grand distinc- tion between these phenomena does not consist in any peculiarity of colour, but in the marked difference visible in the expression of the countenance during the paroxysm.
- Every one is familiar with the piercing, fire-flash- ing eye of the enraged, in whom each feature is sharpened to acuteness. This has been observed by the earliest writers, and we find some of Homer’s finest characters ‘“‘ flushed with rage,” “their eyes glistening with fire,” and eager for revenge. Thus he compares the eyes of Agamemnon, when enraged, to a flame.* When Achilles was angry because his mistress was taken from him, “his eyes shone terribly;” and when Ajax persuades him to take arms again, he exclaims, “ My heart swells with rage.” f And when he saw his arms brought him by Thetis, ‘‘presently his heart glows with rage, and flames of fire flashed from his eye- balls.” £ The above illustrations of our subject are taken from the immortal poet who has copied so rigidly from nature; and we find our own Homer, the bard of Avon, revelling in the fitful passions of a Richard and a Macbeth. When we contrast with these the drooping or downcast aspect of the entire countenance in the blush of guilt, the features, as it
* Fiiad; ibs i: + Ib. lib. 1x. { Ib. lib. x.
BLUSH OF SHAME. 69
were, for the moment assuming an indescribable ex- pression of languor, we may readily detect the lead- ing characteristics of both phenomena.
In the blush of shame every feature seems in a state of collapse. They gradually sink, one by one, from their natural position. We may first observe the eyebrows, if arched or elevated, sinking to a plane. The upper eyelid and cilia follow, drooping over the eyeball, which now begins to appear dim, and this organ itself is seen turning towards the earth, whi- ther it is impelled by the consciousness of its subju- gation, but more especially to avoid the scrutinizing gaze of the spectator. In this state the individual | remains until the paroxysm has passed away, but , sometimes blush follows blush, if the excitement and
susceptibility correspond in intensity. As the feel- ings subside, the features resume their wonted as- pect. That eye which but a moment before
“ Downcast drooped in tearless agony,”
gradually assumes its natural brilliancy and expres- sion, and the whole countenance, “the mirror of the soul,” is once more calm and composed, after having told “ the tale of its prison-house.”
CHAPTER VI.
THE IDIOTS PECULIARITY.
Tuer congenital idiot is capable of exhibiting all the instinctive passions in a high degree, but as far as I am aware, he never evinces his sensorial feelings by Blushing. Query—Why does this being never blush? is he incapable of the act?
In a foregoing Chapter I have endeavoured to show that the phenomenon of blushing is an impulse of the reasoning power; and if this be true, we must necessarily infer, that individuals deprived of this ennobling faculty are wholly incapable of exhibiting the phenomenon in question. Therefore, idiots come under this rule in particular.
In the paralyzation of reason, consequent upon inebriation from wine or opium, we have an ex- ample of man in his healthy state exhibiting the characters of an irrational being. During the period of intoxication, his sensorium is dead to all moral impressions—reason is dormant for the time being,
IDIOTS PECULIARITY. 71
and he is perfectly insensible to the different feelings of honour, shame, disgrace, &c. ; although, in his sober moments, he may have been keenly alive to these emotions, and if so, will again experience them in their full power, when reason resumes her empire. *
Insane persons, being subject to lucid intervals occasionally, and then exhibiting the powers of reason, do not strictly belong to the same class of irrational beings. The loss of reason in the idiot is permanent from the cradle to the grave; in the Maniac it frequently comes and goes as if from whim or caprice.
But, it is worthy of observation that individuals having a tendency to insanity are particularly sub- ject to colouring ; indeed, the wild rolling eye and flushing cheek are almost invariably observed amongst the first symptoms of this dreadful disease.
The idiot is capable of weeping, laughing, . &e.— he is particularly subject to become enraged—the animal propensities are highly developed’ in him— in short, he is the slave of the instinctive passions; and, therefore, he should be regarded as an animal of the neutral ground, being lower in the scale of creation than rational man, and not much above the brute.
_* See Darwin’s Zoonomia, Article—Drunkenness, t Some German writers go so far as to regard all insanity
_48 a wrong action of the soul, and speak of the insane as sinners. —Dr. Baty.
72 - IDIOT’S PECULIARITY.
Professor Muller, in his profound work on Physio- logy, states his opinion that idiocy depends upon an imperfect formation of the brain, and is not a con- genital disease of the mind. In illustration of this he gives the cases of two congenital idiots residing near Bromberg, in Germany.
One of these individuals is seventeen, the other ten years of age. Both enjoying excellent health, are at the same time so stupid that they do not re- member their way back to their home if they leave
it but a short distance ; they manifest their volition 3 only in eating and drinking, and in destroying everything which comes into their hands ; they are, however, tractable and harmless in disposition. Even in these remarkable cases (adds Professor Muller) we cannot imagine that any congenital disease of the mind itself existed, any original defect in the mental principle ; in the latent state of this principle in the germ, there was, without doubt, all present which was necessary for the highest perfec- tion, but on account of the imperfect formation of the brain, the development of the higher mental faculties became impossible.
The idiot isin general happy, but his happiness emanates wholly from animal or instinctive enjoy- ment; being isolated from his fellow-beings by the deprivation of the moral and intellectual powers, he is totally unconscious of the difference between right and wrong—his life is a long infancy of
ANALOGOUS PHENOMENA, ETC. 73
vegetative existence, born and dying in the same state of unconsciousness.
The idiot cannot blush; the primum mobile of action, (i.e. conscience, ) in all cases of infringement upon moral rectitude, is dormant in this being. From these and similar facts it is but reasonable to infer that the seat of the impulse which excites the true blush is higher up in the nervous system than that of the Passtons—or, in other words, that this impulse emanates wholly from the cerebrum.
ANALOGOUS PHENOMENA IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.
If we regard the sudden colouring of the cheek from passion in the same light as other instances of “vital turgescence” produced by different means, we shall find a beautiful illustration of the pheno- menon of flushing in the comb of the turkey and game-cock when inflamed or enraged. In this in- stance, as in man, the sudden flush is evidently the effect of an impulse of the mind; in both cases it gives external evidence of strong internal emotion.
In some of our domestic quadrupeds, as the dog, for
instance, we are aware that consciousness, or rather an instinctive conscience, exists to a certain degree. L
74 ANALOGOUS PHENOMENA, ETC.
This animal knows well the distinction between right and wrong, and is always aware when he has transgressed. Ifa dog be chastised for his offence, he evinces shame in his own peculiar manner. This is alluded to, in “ The Life of Sir Walter Scott,” in the following passage: “ Sir Walter amused himself with the peculiarities of another of his dogs, a little shame-faced terrier, with large glassy eyes, one of the most sensitive little bodies to insult and indig- nity in the world. If ever he whipped him, he said the little fellow would sneak off and hide himself from the light of day in a lumber garret, whence there was no drawing him forth but by the sound of the chopping knife, as if chopping his victuals, when he would steal forth with humiliated aspect and downcast look, but would skulk away again if any one regarded him.” ‘This is not an uncommon occurrence, or confined to any particular species ; it may,on the contrary, be frequently observed. Birds generally evince their passion by the expression of the eye and curling of their plumage. Thus in the
parrot, when enraged, the membrana nictitans* may
be observed expanding over the globe of the eye, leaving but a small aperture for vision. Although I cannot illustrate this part of my sub-
* By means of this ruirp eyelid, according to Cuvisr, the Eagle is enabled to look at the sun. The rris may also be seen contracting in the Parrot when roused by anger.
COLOURING OF PLANTS. aS
ject by an example derived from the vegetable kingdom, still there are a few interesting points relative to the colouring of plants, which may not be altogether inadmissible in this place.
In another part of this Essay, I have alluded to the state of “ turgor vitalis,” or vital turgescence, being suddenly excited in some plants, as exem- plified in the turgid state of the leaf-bud from the sudden ascent of the sap, which may be pro- duced artifically in particular cases. This is often the effect of “ sensibility,” or “ excitability ;” but I fear we cannot explain the sudden change of colour so frequently observed in flowers, on the Same principle. Thus a dingy brownish-purple tulip will suddenly, and without warning, burst forth in the most radiant beauty, its dull disagree- able colours dispersed, a pure and spotless white taking its place in part, and the brightest and deepest streaks of crimson adding richness to its purity. It is singular, that amongst the natural colours of plants, red is very common, and yellow, blue, pale, &c. comparatively rare. The different colours of flowers depends principally upon solar light, and the various degrees of oxygenation of their chromule or colouring matter, unless in some parti- cular instances, where they may be determined by the presence of an acid or an alkali.
Were it advisable to extend this notice of the
76 COLOURING OF PLANTS.
colouring of flowers further, the kingdom of Flora would afford an ample store of interesting illustra-
tions for our purpose; but asa more lengthened en- quiry (however pleasing the subject might be in it- self) into the beauties and mysteries of this division of creation could not, with propriety, be given in these pages, I shall here draw the First Division of my subject to a close.
SECTION SECOND.
THE ANATOMY OF BLUSHING.
CHAPTER I.
THE BRAIN, SPINAL MARROW, AND SYMPATHETIC NERVES.
In the first part of this Essay I have endeavoured to trace out the history of Blushing, and have there attempted to show that in its healthy state this phe- nomenon emanates from the impulse of moral recti- tude, and in its diseased form is entirely the effect of morbid sensibility. I have traced that sensibility from its first appearance in animate beings to its per- fect development and over-refinement in civilized man. I have theorized on the probable intent of Providence in endowing our kind with this peculiar involuntary power. I have shown that it is a beau- tiful illustration of moral instinct and design, and by inductive reasoning have endeavoured to prove that the Creator, who ordains everything in nature to fulfil his own wise and good purposes, has endowed
78 THE BRAIN, SPINAL MARROW,
man with this guardian faculty, for the sole purpose of giving external evidence of his intense feelings, and consciousness of shame. I have traced its ap- pearance in some of the different coloured varieties of the human race, and have seen that it is less fre- quent in savage than in civilized existence. Not agreeing with our forefathers in the existence of a black-blooded race of men, I have demonstrated that the dark Ethiopian is as capable of exhibiting this phenomenon, as the beautiful Circassian or fair European ; and as we advanced in the scale of civi- lization we observed that its appearance became more frequent at every step. I have pointed out its intimate connection with moral philoso- phy, practical education, and medical jurispru- dence, and to these important points the greater portion of the first part of this Essay has been devoted.
I have now arrived at the second part of my in- quiries, which | trust will appear still more interest- ing than the first; for as simple and common-place as the act of blushing may appear to the general observer, we shall see that there are a multitude of actions and parts to be performed by our mental and physical faculties before it can be produced. I shall endeavour to demonstrate in this Section, that there are a variety of parts to be engaged; that there is a chain of action to be set up between the sensorium and the heart, the minute blood-vessels
AND SYMPATHETIC NERVES. 79
and the nerves, (sympathetic, spinal, and cerebral, ) before the slightest blush can be produced. I shall, likewise, endeavour to point out the wonderful harmony by which all these corporeal and intellec- tual functions are combined and propelled, and made effectual to the production of this single result.
The principal structures directly engaged in the production of this phenomenon are: First, The brain, spinal marrow, involuntary nervous system, &c., with which the heart, stomach, and lungs seem to sympathize. Second, The minute arteries and capillary blood-vessels of the cheek, &c. Third, The skin in man, and the erectile tissues in the. lower animals ; but as we shall see hereafter, this latter structure may be engaged in the human being during the act of blushing; and in addition to the foregoing, I may here observe, that the conjunc- tivee of the eyes not unfrequently become injected with red blood, when the mental paroxysm becomes Intense.
Having thus premised, let me now endeavour to investigate and unravel these different structures, individually, and in the order of their arrangement; but it is to be understood, that I only intend to treat of each as far as it has any reference or con- nection with the present subject.
OF THE BRAIN.
Of all animals, man has the most capacious skull in proportion to his face; and as the size of the brain is always in proportion to that of the osseous case which contains it, the brain is also most bulky in man. This difference of size between the cranium and face may be taken as the measure of the human understanding, and of the instinct of the lower animals. The stupidity and ferocity of the latter are greater according as the proportions of these two parts of their skull vary from those of the human head. From the brain the nerves are propagated to the various organs of the senses, and over the body, bestowing sensation, and acting as the agents of the will. It is the receptacle of sensa- tion, and believed to be the instrument of thought, and it was formerly supposed that the soul existed in a small body called the pineal gland, situated near the centre of this organ.* ‘The substance of the brain is delicate and soft, and possesses a degree of elastic resistance. It is protected and supported by the skull and dura mater; its peculiar matter is supported and nourished by the pia mater. It also consists of two very distinct substances, the cineri- tious and medullary matter, and the vessels which
* Descartes,
OF THE BRAIN. 81
supply it with blood, are branches of the carotid and vertebral arteries. According to M. Magendie the brain is the material organ of thought, which he says is proved by a number of experiments and facts, and that nothing is more complicated or more difficult in anatomy than the study of its organization. Vauquelin has analyzed the brain, and has come to the conclusion that in 100 parts there are 80 of water, 4.53 white fatty matter, 0.7 reddish fatty matter, 7 albumen, 1.12 ozmazome, 1.5 phosphorus, 5.15 acids, salts, and sulphur. In order to disclose the structure of the brain better than had been hitherto done, MM. Gall and Spurzheim began their dissection at its base, and proceeded upwards, contrary to the former mode of examining this organ, which was from above downwards, and have considerably advanced our knowledge respect- ing its functions and structure. We are, likewise,
indebted to them for their ingenious system of Phrenology. |
These anatomists have endeavoured to prove that there are thirty-five different faculties, all seated on the surface of the brain, and which may be generally known by eminences on the external table of the skull, corresponding to their situation. These thirty- five faculties are divided into two orders. The first includes those which come under the head of the Feelings ; the second merely those of the Under- standing. But this arrangement of the mental
M
82 OF THE BRAIN.
powers, though ingenious in itself, was of too arbi- trary a nature to admit of its ever being generally adopted.
It is, however, now universally admitted that the sensorium or thinking faculty has its seat in the brain, and that the latter organ must be in a healthy state in order that the powers of the mind may be duly and properly exercised. But the seat of the Passions has not been as yet so firmly agreed upon. The ancients supposed that they existed in the vis- cera, in consequence of every vivid sensation of joy or distress, of pleasure or pain, bringing on a feel- ing of anxiety in the precordia. They placed cou- rage in the heart, anger in the liver, joy in the spleen, &e. Bacon and Van Helmont seated them in the stomach, Lecat in the nervous plexuses; other physiologists in the ganglia of the great sympathe- tic, &e. But the majority of modern philosophers have considered the brain as the seat of the pas- sions. Others again deny the accuracy of this assertion, and on this subject Magendie makes the following eloquent comment. Shall we speak of the seat of the passions ? says this eminent phy- siologist. Shall we say, like Bichât, that they re- side in organic life, or like the ancients and certain moderns, that anger resides in the head, courage in the heart, fear in the semilunar ganglion, &e. ? But the passions are internal sensations; they can have no seat. They are the result of the action of
Cys OF THE BRAIN. 83
the nervous system, and particularly of that of the brain. They admit then of no explanation. They may be observed, directed, calmed, or extinguished, but not explained.
From whatever source the passions may have their origin, it is self-evident that the impulse which ex- cites the blush wholly originates from the sensorium in the brain, for, as we have already observed, this phenomenon is closely allied to reason and under- standing, both of which must co-exist before it can be fully developed. We might draw this line of dis- tinction between blushing and the passions com- monly so called, viz,. if the former be a passion, (as we understand that term,) it is evidently one of reason, in contradistinction to the others, or passions of instinct, such as joy, fear, pleasure, pain, &c. The latter are wholly instinctive ; they may be evinced by the lower animals, but for the production of the former there is conscience, understanding, and rea- son necessary, or in other words, it is solely and ex- clusively a prerogative of the human soul. From what has been stated regarding the sensorium and brain, it may be fairly induced that the latter organ
is the primitive seat of the impulse which excites the blush ; that it is in this organ the ideas are ge- nerated—that the image of our real or imaginary transgression of the moral laws is formed, and kept before the soul, until it is fully charged with its im- pression, and rebels, when its involuntary nervous
84 OF THE SPINAL MARROW.
allies, the spinal marrow and sympathetic nerves, sympathize with its disturbed functions.
OF THE SPINAL MARROW.
Until of late years little had been known regard- ing the physiology of this organ, or, indeed, I might add, of the entire nervous system. It is to the brilliant discoveries of Magendie, Sir Charles Bell, Professor Muller, Signor Bellingeri, and Marshall Hall, that we are principally indebted for all our knowledge regarding the structure and functions of these parts; but, to our illustrious countrymen, Sir Charles Bell and Dr. Marshall Hall, belong the chief merit of originality and enquiry. This organ, together with the nerves which it transmits to the various internal and external parts of the body, as we well know, is entirely beyond the control of the will; it is intimately united with the ganglia of the grand sympathetic nerve within the thorax, through the media of its contributary branches, and both of these conjoined form the centre of all the involun- tary movements ‘that take place in our system. Dr. Marshall Hall deduces several strong argu- ments in favour of the medulla oblongata being the seat of the passions. ‘There is good reason to con-
OF THE SPINAL MARROW. 85
clude, says this physiologist, that the cerebrum is the seat of the Yun and of all the intellectual faculties. There is equally good reason to believe, that the medulla oblongata is the seat or nervous organ of the manifestation of the appetites and passions. In the idiot, in whom the cerebral lobes are struck with such atrophy and defective development as to annihilate every vestige of intellect, the appetites and passions are frequently not only unimpaired, but unnaturally strong; the appetite for food, sexual excitement, anger, and terror, are manifested in their turns in a remarkable degree. The arm, which is totally paralysed to volition or voluntary motion, in hemiplegia, is strongly agitated by sur- prise and other emotions. The seat of these emo- tions is, therefore, placed lower down in the nervous system than the seat of volition and of the disease ; the influence of volition is intercepted by that disease ; whilst that of passion is manifested in the most dis- tinct manner.” Query—Does any form of the blush take its origin from this seat of the passions, and if one does, may not all the rest be referred to the same source? To the former of these questions 1 reply in the affirmative; as every one must be fami- liar with the appearance of the blush, or rather, of the flush of rage—this is a ¿rue instinctive passion, and though there is no very apparent difference in the redness of the cheeks in this instance from what is observed in the blush of shame, still there
86 OF THE SPINAL MARROW.
are many collateral symptoms by which one may easily be distinguished from the other; and the pe- culiar expression of the countenance, as already observed, is in itself sufficient to denote which is which. It is intrinsically the same impulse which produces this flush in man, that also inflames the comb of a turkey cock when swollen with rage. They are both examples of the same animal passion, differently exhibited, and may be produced without the intervention of the cerebral functions. But to the second query, I have to reply in the negative ; for arguing from the preceding data, as well as a variety of other circumstances, which will be fully explained in the concluding part of this Essay, I here state my entire conviction that the seat of the impulse which excites the true blush does not exist in any part of this organ, or in the cerebellum. The spinal marrow supplies all the vital organs with nervous influence—these organs whose func- tions never cease from the hour of birth to that when the last ray of life forsakes them. It supplies the heart with involuntary power, whose functions must be kept up without a moment of intermission, night and day, sleeping and waking. It supplies the stomach, the liver, the kidneys, the bladder, &c., with the same independent nervous influence; all these organs must be kept constantly in action for the maintenance and preservation of life; and. in order to effect this purpose, the spinal and sympa-
OF THE SPINAL MARROW. 87
thetic system unite in placing them entirely beyond the caprice of the will. One point of great interest, Says Dr. M. Hall, is that which relates to the effect of sleep on the cerebral and on the true spinal sys- tems. In fact, the former sleeps; the latter never sleeps, The levator palpebree, a voluntary muscle, raises the eyelid in our waking hours; the orbicu- laris, under the influence of the true spinal system, closes the eyelids when the cerebral or voluntary muscle reposes. The connection which this part of the nervous system has with the phenomenon of blushing, consists chiefly in its forming, by impli- cation, a part of that involuntary nervous chain or circle through which the blush exciting spiritus animi is circulated, and which I shall endeavour to ex- plain more fully in the Section on the Mechanism of this phenomenon. For the present, it is suffi- cient to have pointed out that the spinal marrow
supplies principally those organs whose constant
and unremitting action is necessary for the mainte- nance of life; and all those parts to which it trans- mits its nervous influence are more or less beyond the control of the will. I shall now proceed to in- vestigate the organ of the sympathies, and endea- vour to point out its connection with the former.
OF THE SYMPATHETIC NERVES.
Extended along the vertebral column, from the base of the skull to the lower part of the sacrum, these great nerves, in some measure parasitic, are said to issue from the branches supplied them by the fifth and sixth pairs arising from each side of the brain ; they live and are nourished, as it were, at the ex- pense of all the nerves of the spinal marrow, from which they receive branches. The numerous ganglia which are distributed along their course, divide them into so many small systems, from which arise the nerves of the organs nearest them. Amid these ganglia, considered by several physiologists as so many little brains, in which is performed the elabo- ration of the fluid which they transmit to the nerves of the organs nearest them, no one is of more importance than the semilunar ganglion, situated behind the organs occupying the epigastric region, and whence those nerves originate, which are distri- buted to the greater part of the viscera of the abdo- men. It isto the region occupied by that ganglion, where the great sympathetic nerves unite, and which may be considered as the centre of the sys- tem, formed by their union, that we refer all our agreeable sensations ; there it is we feel in sadness a constriction which is commonly referred to the heart. Thence in the sad emotions of the soul,
OF THE SYMPATHETIC NERVES. 89
Seem to originate those painful irradiations, which trouble and derange the exercise of all our func- tions. The numerous filaments of the great Sympathetic nerve are finer, and are said to be endowed with a more delicate sensibility, in some instances, than those of the brain; and the pain attending an affection of these great nerves is of a very peculiar kind ; it tends directly to the extinc- tion of the vital power—in these instances, the pulse is frequent and hard, but small; the face is covered with a cold sweat, the features are sunk, all the symptoms are alarming, and soon terminate fatally.
The use of the great sympathetic nerves is not merely to establish a closer connexion and a greater union between all the organs which perform the functions of assimilation, but likewise to free those parts from the influence of the will; a power of the mind so fickle and so varying, that life would
be in constant danger, if we had it in our power to
stop or suspend the exercise of functions, with which life is essentially connected. Professor Chaussier states, that the upper filaments of the great sym- pathetic nerves ascend along the internal carotid, and join the spheno-palatine and lenticular gang- lions; and M. Ribes says, he has ascertained by dissection, that several very long and slender fila- ments follow the course of the branches of the in- ternal carotid, and like them are sent to the base N
90 OF THE SYMPATHETIC NERVES.
of the brain, beyond which they cannot be traced ; and, of course, all those parts which receive their nerves from this system must be considered as en- tirely beyond the control of the will.
There exists in the stomach, says M. Richerand, a union of the cerebral and sympathetic nerves, which explains the manifest dependency in which one of the three supports of life is found with the brain; a dependency so marked, that every strong affection of the soul, every violent agitation of the mind, weakens or even totally suspends the action of digestion in the stomach. We know from ex- perience that, when the nervous system is extremely delicate, a small impression on any of the organs of sense will often produce considerable disturbance in the body. “ In those cases,” says Whytt, “the impression made upon the mind, or sensorium com- mune, by seeing others in a disordered state, raises by means of the nerves such motions or changes in certain parts of the body, as to produce similar af- fections in them; and hence it is, that the sight only of a person vomiting has often excited the same action in others; that yawning is propagated from one person through a whole company, and that convulsive disorders are caught by looking on those affected with them. Now, although we can- not explain how different impressions made on the sensorium commune should occasion, by means of the nerves, those various changes in the body, yet
OF THE SYMPATHETIC NERVES. 91
that the nerves are really capable of producing very Sudden changes in the circulation and distribution of the fluids, when the mind is variously affected, we have full proof in that redness of the face which ac- Companies a sense of shame, that increased flux of the saliva which happens to a hungry person upon the sight of grateful food, and that plentiful discharge of tears, which is often produced by piteous objects or tragical stories.” The history of the supposed functions of these nerves is deeply interesting, es- pecially as to their distribution and connection with the complex vagus nerve in the region of the Stomach, all of which I shall have occasion to re- vert to in a succeeding Chapter.
CHAPTER II.
OF THE HEART AND CAPILLARY BLOOD~VESSELS.
Tue capillary circulation has long been a most fer- tile source of dispute among physiologists, espe- cially as to the capability of the heart in propelling the blood, and maintaining its motion through the re- mote arterial branches. Some have alleged, that the impulse of the heart’s action is altogether lost before the blood arrives at these minute vessels; and also state, that its circulation here is carried on by what
is called capillary attraction alone; others again maintain, that it is by the property of endosmose, the principle by which the sap ascends in plants, that the blood is propelled through those minute vessels. But that great physiologist, Muller, and
several others of the German school, deny in toto the foregoing doctrines, and confidently assert that the action of the heart is sufficient to propel the blood through the capillaries. “ The motions of the heart,” says this author, “ are considerably
OF THE HEART. 93
affected by both the exciting and depressing pas- sions. The sensations of many parts are altered ; the secretions, as those of the lachrymal gland and skin, are affected; the action of the capillaries is modified ; hence the skin becomes red, or in other Cases pallid; in short, the passions influence, first, the nerves engaged in the respiratory function, then through the medium of the spinal cord, all the nerves of the trunk and extremities, as well those of animal life as the organic nerves.” And, again, in alluding to the sympathy that exists between the heart and brain, the same writer asks, “ Does not the heart Stand in the same relation to the mental emotions as the lachrymal organs, which are affected by every emotion of the mind when it reaches a certain intensity ?”
Are not all these alliances between our vital or- gans sufficient to fill us with wonder and admira- tion of the exquisite harmony and adaptation which the Almighty has observed in the construction of our frames. Is it not pleasing, that we are en- abled to look back and trace ab origine, that beau- tiful chain of action by which “ the heart, and soul, and sense, in concert move ;” and, further, to be enabled to point out an evidence of design in every link of this harmonious piece of mechanism. What other parts of our organic structure are more capa- ble of exciting our wonder, or of filling us with gratitude for the plenitude and richness of the gifts
94 OF THE HEART,
of our Creator, than the heart and its blood-vessels. In these organs circulate that fluid which has such a material connection with our existence, which has even been called life itself by some of the ancients, and the soul by others. We have, therefore, arrived at the most interesting part of our enquiries, viz., that which involves the whole arterial system, as concerned in our present subject, and its rela- tionship with the involuntary nervous system, this being evidently the medium through which the exciting stimulus is conveyed from the sensorium.
The intent of this Chapter is to endeavour to ex- plain the connection that exists between the heart and brain, and to demonstrate, as clearly as possi- ble, the complicated nervous chain, by which three of the most important of the vital organs, viz., the brain, heart, and stomach, are united, combined, and harmonized into one grand whole. How the slightest derangement in the function of the one is reflected upon, and instantaneously affects the other, producing a general derangement and reaction in not only themselves, but in the entire system— thus affording another argument in favour of the unity of design in creation.
The heart, as is well known, preserves its organic vitality for some time even after it has been re- moved from the body ; it may be seen to throb or pulsate on the table several moments after jt is taken from the animal, and when this vitality seems
OF THE HEART. 95
to have departed, from the tranquillity of the organ, its pulsation may be again excited, by applying various stimuli to its external surface. Some Physiologists have asserted, that after it lies quiet for many hours, if it be pricked with a needle and made moderately warm, it will again begin to move ; for which reason the ancients supposed there was a latent vital principle in the heart; and Galen has Said, that its motion is innate. From this it would appear, that though the heart be furnished with the common causes of muscular motion, derived from the arteries and nerves, it further contains, within itself, a power of raising motions, which cannot be deduced from anything that we are hitherto ac- quainted with in the structure of the parts. “ Cut off all the vessels from the heart,” says Boyle, “and it will continue its motion;” thus the heart of an eel taken out from the body continued to beat, and though put under a receiver, and the air exhausted, its pulsation did not cease for the space of an hour; the heart of a flounder cut transversely into two parts, retained its motion for a great length of time, though the blood had been squeezed out of it by Pressure, and both sides of it wiped with a cloth. That the observation holds good in the heart of man, appears from the words of Lord Verulam, Who says, in his Essay on Life and Death, ‘ upon the embowelling of a criminal, (the former mode of Punishment for those convicted of high treason,) he
96 OF THE HEART.
had seen the heart of a man, after it was thrown into the fire, leap up for several times together; at first to the height of a foot and a-half, and then gradually lower * * *.” Galen concluded, from similar experiments, that the heart does not stand in need of nerves for the discharge of its pro- per functions; that it is a mistake to think that the heart is a muscle, and that it Is in a manner the “ fountain of native heat.”
Many other theories similar to these, respecting this wonderful property in the heart, 2. e., its irrita- bility, were advanced and have passed away since the days of this illustrious physiologist; however, it is now universally admitted that the heart’s action is intimately connected with the spinal marrow and involuntary nervous system, and through them with the brain and the whole of the vital organs.
We find from anatomical investigation that the heart is abundantly supplied with large and nume- rous nerves from different sources. We find the
three cardiac nerves derived from the great sympa- thetic proceeding downwards through the chest until they arrive and unite at that point where the aorta arises from the heart.—Here we see them joined by
the eighth pair and recurrent complex nerves, and also by branches of the spinal; all these finally unite in forming immediately behind the heart that net-work of nervous branches known by the name of the cardiac plexus; and in the meshes of this
OF THE HEART. 97
plexus, we find several smaller ganglia interwoven and inclosed, the whole forming a beautiful nervous wreath, in which the heart is partially entwined. From this plexus branches proceed in various di- rections ; some pass backwards, encircling the pos-
terior coronary artery, forming a plexus around
it, and accompanying its branches into the substance of the heart; others pass round the aorta, and the anterior coronary artery, and form a net-work around it, the same as that of the posterior.
From this brief sketch of the anatomy of the heart, we may infer that these nerves being in themselves perfectly beyond the control of the will, must necessarily endow that organ which they so largely supply with their own peculiar involun- tary nervous energy. It is true that there are cases on record in which it is stated that the heart’s motion has been arrested at the command of the will, and one of those individuals who possessed this extraordinary power of volition was in the habit of constantly exhibiting himself before the public, un- til at length he fell a victim to his own rashness, for one day, upon a special occasion, having arrested his heart’s action, and continuing the experiment some- what longer than usual, he could not get it to move again when he intended, and immediately expired.
Are we to consider such cases as depending on a casual predominancy of the eighth pair of nerves
over those more purely involuntary, or shall we re- oO
98 OF THE HEART.
gard them as mere anomalies? The latter conclu- sion appears to be the most tenable, for in whatever light we regard such instances, they baffle all our inquiry, and are examples of the mysteries of na- ture, which are infinitely beyond all human investi- gation. We have now seen the chain of nervous connection that exists between the brain and heart, by which the emotions of the one are communi- cated to the other.
Offer an affront to a man who is now quite calm and undisturbed, says Van Swietan, and ona sudden, by a change in his thoughts, an universal change shall arise in the whole system ; his heart beats quicker and stronger, his pulse rises higher and fuller, he grows hotter, his face swells, his eyes sparkle, and even a violent fever will sometimes follow that shall end in death. The impression on the sensorium in this instance affects the heart by sympathy, through the medium of the involuntary chain of nerves.
These great nerves, after supplying the heart, proceed onwards, as we have already seen, to the region of the stomach, which organ is highly en- dowed with their influence, and here the whole in- voluntary nervous system is concentrated into one focus, under the name of the “Grand Solar Plexus,” from which emanate all those painful sen- sations so well known to the dyspeptic patient. -
This nervous ganglion is likewise the seat of all
OF THE HEART. 99
the depressing passions, as those of despondency, fear, ke., and in particular of that melancholy and heart-rending feeling commonly called the broken heart. Hence issue the sighs of affliction and despair, the feeling which prompts the suicide to Commit that deed which “ eternity cannot annul,” and is oftentimes the seat of the distemper known by the name of “ religious monomania.” This ganglion consummates that circle which I have spoken of as uniting the brain, and heart, and sto- Mach into one. There is a reciprocal feeling or sympathy existing between these organs, which binds them closely together, and to this harmony of con- nection is owing that wonderful faculty by which the impression made upon the mind or sensorium is almost instantaneously conveyed to the heart, stomach, kidneys, &c., and vice versa.
We in common parlance say that “we feel op- pressed from a load at the heart,” whenever affected by disagreeable news, or any reverse. Though the expression is forcible enough, and vulgarly received as correct, still it is far from being so. The feel- ing which we attempt to describe emanates not from the heart; or chest, but from the solar plexus of nerves communicating with the stomach. We sigh to relieve ourselves of the burden which we feel Oppressing us, perfectly unconscious of the sus- pension for the time being of the functions of the Stomach, which keeps up the state of feeling while the derangement lasts.
100 OF THE CAPILLARIES,
A slight blow of the fingers externally over this highly sensitive point has frequently produced in- stantaneous death. We have a case recorded of several men who were lifting weights for a wager as feats of strength, and one less powerful than the others, having failed in his attempts several times, one of the party advanced to him as he was about to make another trial, and giving him, as he thought, a gentle blow at the pit of the stomach, said by way of joke, “ Leave the way for a better man; you will never lift it.’ The individual struck instantly fell dead on the spot. At the time his companion struck him he was completely off his guard; the abdomi- nal muscles were evidently quite relaxed, and the impression was conveyed directly to the solar plexus.
The ancients would probably have inferred from ` this fact that the cardiac region was the seat of life, and that death was effected by the sudden and un- expected shock, and a total exhaustion or displace- ment of the vital fluid.
OF THE CAPILLARIES.
As the nerves of the heart and arteries, both large and small, are principally derived from the sympathetic and spinal system, it is but reasonable to infer, that the ultimate ramuscles of the arterial
OF THE CAPILLARIES. 101
tube, called the capillary system, which has eluded all research and investigation, is supplied by Nervous filaments derived from the same source. Nerves have been demonstrated by M. Ribes on the minute arteries of the brain; and Dr. Macartney is of opinion that the arteries of the very smallest size receive nerves, on which the peculiar sensibi- lity of these vessels depends, and by means of- which the state of the small arteries is affected by remote and indirect impressions.
It is now almost universally admitted that the blood is circulated throughout the arterial sys- tem, as far as the capillaries, by the heart’s action principally ; but the manner in which this fluid is propelled through the “capillary system,” as far as its junction with the veins, is still undecided ; it is a most fertile source of dispute amongst anatomists and physiologists, both of whom promulgate doc- trines and theories on this subject, directly opposed to each other. Amongst such a variety of conflict- ing opinions little can be expected from my humble efforts to elucidate the subject. However, I shall endeavour, briefly, to state both sides of the ques- tion; and as it is materially connected with the theory of blushing, I shall take the liberty of offer- ing those views which appear to me as correct.
Here, then, the chief questions which propose themselves for our consideration are—First, By what means is the red colour, which suddenly rises
102 OF THE CAPILLARIES,
on the cheek in the act of blushing, produced ? Second, Is it from an impulse of the heart and solar plexus of nerves, sympathizing with the mental emotion, and reflected upon the cheek ? - Or, Thirdly, Is it merely a local affection produced by some inherent property belonging to the small blood-vessels of the face in particular; or, by a cer- tain stimulus conveyed to them by the filaments of the sympathetic nerves, which we have already seen accompanying and supplying the arteries with ner- vous influence, independent of the will? These are the questions which offer themselves for our imme- diate consideration; they involve all the theories of the capillary circulation, than which nothing in phy- siology is more interesting ; and in our enquiries we must recollect, that it is stated, there are two capil- lary circulations, one propelling red and the other white blood ; and that it devolves upon us to ex- plain, whether these vessels of the cheek, in the natural state invisible, contain any fluid at all; or, are they merely “ vaisseaux vides,’ as named by Bichat and others; and how they give admittance to the red blood on special occasions, as seen in the flush of rage, blush of shame, &c.
In reply to these queries, I may state—First, That the redness of the cheeks strikingly de- veloped in the act of blushing—the flush of rage and glow of exercise, is produced by the red blood entering and circulating through vessels hitherto
OF THE CAPILLARIES. 103
invisible, either from their containing in their natu- ral state a transparent fluid, which cannot be readily distinguished from the superincumbent Skin ; or else, that they are collapsed and contain no fluid previous to the blood entering them on these special occasions.
Tn treating of the capillary system, Bichat says, “It is established as an incontestable fact, that in many organs of the animal economy, the general capillary system is, in the ordinary state, traversed partly by blood, and partly by fluids different from it, which appear to be white.” He says again, “ Peut-être aussi y a-t-il habituellement dans ce Système, des vaisseaux vides, et qui sont destiné à recevoir les fluides en certain circonstances.” Now, it appears to be much more probable, that there are some of those minute vessels empty and collapsed, and destined to receive blood or other fluids on cer- tain occasions, than to suppose that they naturally Contain whitish or transparent fluids which give Way, that the blood may occupy their places on certain emergencies; for, were this the case, a question immediately arises, viz.—Where does this Whitish fluid go when required to make way for the blood ? According to natural laws, no two bodies “an occupy the same space at the same time—one Must evidently yield to the other; surely this white fluid cannot be infiltrated into the cells of the cel- lular tissue; and we may reasonably suppose, that there are no new vessels ready to receive it,
104 OF THE CAPILLARIES.
Bichat’s comment upon the rapidity with which the blood traverses the capillaries of the face, and those of different parts of the skin, bears me out in this hypothesis; he says, ‘ On conçoit même dif- ficilement la rapidite du passage du sang dans les capillaires de la face, et dans ceux de differentes parties de la peau, si ces vaisseaux contennaient un
fluid qui dit-étre deplacé pour ceder sa place au sang.”* And asa proof that the blood, on these emergencies, is propelled into and contained in real vessels, instead of being infiltrated into the surround- ing cellular substance: the same author alludes to the appearance the conjunctive present when
slightly inflamed; he adds—“ Souvent en peu de temps elle change son. blanc en un rouge vif, par- ceque le sang remplit des vaisseaux ou auparavant il ne passait pas; vous voyez que le sang accumulé dans cette membrane west point infiltré, mais qu'il est contenu dans des vaisseaux réels.”
Boerhaave supposed that in these instances the ca- pillaries became so enlarged as to allow the thicker parts of the blood to enter, and this he called an error loci. In commenting upon this aphorism, Van Swietan makes the following observations :— “ When by the increased motion of the blood the entrances of the arteries of a descending series are enlarged, the grosser particles of the blood will thereby gain admittance into vessels which natu-
* Systèmes Capillaires——Encyclop. des Sciences Medicales.
OF THE CAPILLARIES. 105
rally ought not to contain them. Thus, when the entrance of an artery (springing from an artery that carries red blood) through which there only ought to flow a serous liguid, is dilated, the red blood shall enter this serous artery. If a man in health runs violently, his face will begin to swell, and STOW red in such places as are not naturally apt to be red; the tunica adnata of the eyes will have its vessels filled with red blood, whereas naturally these vessels have no red blood in them at all.”
The following are M. Magendie’s views regard- ing the circulation of this colourless fluid in the Capillary system, and are directly opposed to those of an eminent English writer, as we shall presently See :-— $
“The blood is not the only fluid that moves in the beautiful rete formed by the capillary interlace- ment. There are certain organs and tissues into the capillary system, of which that fluid does not ap- pear to enter at all in the normal state; but if you push an injection into the vessels, it will penetrate into the canals wherein fluids of another description usually circulate, quite as well as into those in which the blood is ordinarily found. Thus, when the material injected is well fitted for the purpose, and cautiously introduced, the serous membranes will become covered with vascular arborisations. Now the vessels you descry on its surface, when thus injected, were not, during life, traversed by
P
195 OF THE CAPILLARIES.
blood ; white fluids only were contained in them, but as these hold no opaque granules in suspension, their mode of circulation cannot be accurately ob- served during life.*
Dr. Macartney, in his recent work on “ Inflam- mation,” explains this phenomenon in the follow- ing manner. The arteries (says Dr. Macartney) which only carry the colourless parts of the blood or the serum, becoming under inflammation so much dilated that they admit the red particles. In the transparent membranes, as the pleura, peritoneum, &e., this is well illustrated, on which the red vessels may be counted, when inflamed. In the transpa- rent cornea the red vessels are very distinct. The vessels of the skin are peculiarly numerous and ex- citable, and therefore when it is inflamed the red- ness has a painted or stained appearance, the vessels being so much crowded together that they are not distinguished from each other. The same is found on the mucous membrane, and in all the parts of the body endowed with much sensibility there is a copious supply of red blood; thus the skin and mu- cous membranes, which are the two great sentient surfaces, receive a great quantity of arterial blood.
Before advancing any farther into the doctrines of inflammation, let us inquire what relationship (if any at all) exists between the phenomenon of blush-
* Magendie’s Lectures on the Blood,—Lancet, Dec. 22, 1838.
OF THE CAPILLARIES. 107
ing and this subject. In the work just quoted, Dr. i Macartney states that “heat and redness are produced in the skin by a merely excited state of circulation, as may be observed in blushing, and in the turgid State of various erectile tissues, as the genital organs, the skin about the turkey-cock’s neck, and many Other similar structures.” But I shall go farther, and endeavour to prove that there is little or no difference between both these phenomena. In an intense blush we have all the symptoms which cha- racterise inflammation. Dr. Macartney has allowed two, viz., “ heat and redness,” to which I shall add the remainder, pain and swelling; although the pain be not acute, still it is deeply felt, for in this instance it has a double origin—it is moral as well as physical, which deepens its sting.
Then, in inflammation we have rubor, calor, dolor, et tumor, as its common diagnostic symptoms. In blushing we have the same—so far, so well—but still there is one important internal symptom be- longing to the former, not yet mentioned, viz., the altered secretion set up by the capillaries of the in- flamed part. How are we to dispose of this, in assimilating the two phenomena? We have no instances recorded in which there has been found any depositions, any alteration in structure in the cheek of an individual prone to blush—and we gene- rally observe the face resume its usual appearance a few moments after it has subsided.
108 OF THE CAPILLARIES.
The capillaries of the external sentient surface, (the skin) “ with the nerves which doubtless accom- pany them,” are the parts principally engaged in both cases, and if their functions become altered in one, why not in the other? The reason is ob- vious—the inflammation of a part must be continued for some time before any alteration can take place in its structure, even allowing the capillary system to deviate by some peculiar unknown power from its usual function in all cases of inflammation. Were this latter process as transitory and fleeting as that of blushing, we should have but few in- stances of structural deposits, alterations, &c., taking place in the vicinity of inflamed parts ; and, on the other hand, if the blush could be kept up for a given time, reasoning from analogy, we must infer, that structural derangement would eventually take place; thus showing us that no- thing is ordained in the conformation of moral or physical man without some final object—some wise purpose; for, in blushing, were the efflorescence to be continued to any lengthened period, the great object for which it was designed would be altoge- ther thwarted—in the first place, by rendering the phenomenon less striking to the observer in conse- quence of its permanency; and, in the second, by tending to produce a derangement in the functions of the parts—a result which could never have been intended by Providence in this instance—Here the
OF THE CAPILLARIES. 109
wisdom and goodness of God is strikingly mani- fested, for, is it not by the sudden and momentary Suffusion that the mind announces its consciousness of having erred—and, is it not from the same cause, viz., the evanescent nature of the blush, that the health of the part is preserved—both proclaiming the phenomenon to be one, not of chance, but of design. Although I do not go so far as to state, that all the effects of inflammation could be pro- duced by this phenomenon if prolonged sufficiently, yet the intimate relation that exists between both is
self-evident and apparent.
Dr. Marshall Hall denies the existence of in- ` creased or diminished action in the capillaries during inflammation—according to his view, a peculiar alteration takes place on the internal sur- face of these vessels, which causes the globules of the blood to adhere to it, and consequently pro- duces stagnation, which constitutes the essential character of the disease ; and in drawing a distinc- tion between blushing and inflammation, he says, “ It is probably by the fact of stagnation, that in- flammation differs from blushing, from eruptions, and in some degree from erysipelas.” This author also denies the existence of serous vessels which ex- clude entirely the red globules of the blood. “It has been supposed,” says Dr. H., “ by many writers that there is a series of blood-vessels which are so
110 OF THE CAPILLARIES.
minute as not to admit the blood globules; they, therefore, carry the serum only This is the case in the tunica conjunctive of the eye, and other membranes destitute of colour. All this is a mere and unfounded hypothesis—there are no such serous, globuleless vessels at all. Take the web of the frog, choose the palest, and what appears to be the most bloodless part of it, and place it under the micro- scope, you will see myriads of capillary vessels, along which the blood, with its globules, flows con- tinuously ; inflame this web, and observe it with the naked eye—it has become red—it now possesses, according to the authors of the hypothesis, vessels which it did not before, and which convey the glo- bules as well as the serum of the blood; look at it under the microscope, and you will find that the real and true change is, that the capillary vessels are somewhat. enlarged and crowded with stagnant blood globules, which, from their augmented num- ber, give the reddened hue to the part. In a word, single globules, flowing along with the serum of the blood, do not impart a redness detectable by the eye; it is accumulated globules, in enlarged or larger vessels, which communicate this colour; it is their accumulation which constitutes the difference in the colour of a part, otherwise pale, white, or transparent, as it becomes affected with inflam- mation.”
Such are the conclusions Dr. Marshall Hall has
OF THE CAPILLARIES. Ill
arrived at, after a long and careful investiga- tion into this interesting subject, and with re- gard to his views respecting the non-existence of “ globuleless vessels,” contrary to the opinions of Boerhaave, Haller, Bichat, &c. I must say, that they appear much more plausible and much more easily reconciled to the known laws of physiology, than those of his predecessors: according to Dr. Hall’s view, we can readily and rationally account for the velocity with which the face becomes crimsoned in the act of blushing, the mechanism is greatly sim- plified, in as much as there are no new vessels re- quired, either to admit the circulating blood into channels through which it naturally ought to flow, or to receive this said whitish fluid, which if it exists, must evidently give way to the red globules, and which we must infer is then exuded into the adjoining tissue, (an improbable event,) or else contained in real vessels, which had been previously empty or collapsed. l
With regard to the distinction which Dr. Hall draws between inflammation and . blushing, I do not agree, and beg, respectfully, to differ from him on this point; if Dr. Hall had observed the pheno- menon in its intense form, as seen on the cheek of individuals the most susceptible, he would recognize a retardation of the blood on the surface, a “ stagna- tion,” or something akin to it, even after the paroxysm had subsided; and which I have seen
112 OF THE CAPILLARIES.
continue for at least twenty minutes after the droop- ing aspect of the features had passed away; this symptom giving evidence of the moral impulse being suppressed ; for I defy any one, in the act of blush- ing, to look at, or stand the glance of another per- son present. The eyes are irresistibly borne down, and the whole features droop, or languish in oppo- sition to the will.
My reply to the second of the questions laid down at the beginning of this Chapter is—That it is fully ascertained by most eminent physiologists, Burdach, Muller, &c. that the heart is capable of propelling the red blood into the remote capillaries of any part of the cutaneous surface—for instance, those of the face, scalp, ears, &c., or either ex- tremities. }
The latter of these authors has some peculiar views regarding this subject, which I may here mention—‘‘ The mutual action or affinity between the blood and the tissues of the body, which is an essential part of the process of nutrition, is, under many circumstances, greatly encreased: and an accumulation of blood into the dilated vessels of this organ is the result. It is seen, for example,
in the reproductive organs when excited; in the uterus during pregnancy, stomach in digestion, &c. The local accumulation of blood with the dilatation of old and the formation of new vessels, is, however, seen most frequently in the embryo, in which new
OF THE CAPILLARIES. 113
organs are developed in succession by a process of this kind (vital turgescence of the blood-vessels). This condition may be excited very suddenly, as is Seen in the instantaneous injection of the cheeks with blood in the act of blushing, and of the whole head under the influence of violent passions; in both these instances the local phenomena are evt- dently induced by nervous influence.” *
With regard to the third query—lIs the increased redness of the cheek in blushing merely a local “fection depending upon its organic sensibility, upon Some inherent property belonging to the small blood-vessels of the face in particular—or upon a certain stimulus conveyed to them by the filaments of the sympathetic nerves, which I have already spoken of, as supplying the ultimate arterial branches with involuntary nervous influence? I have only to state, in reply, that the capillaries of this part of the sentient surface of the body are not in themselves sufficient to produce a moral illustra- tion of shame upon the cheek. I am aware, that there are many arguments in opposition to this statement—but, nevertheless, I maintain that there is a vis a tergo, an impulse from the brain urging the blood forward to the surface of the face, in every instance in which the blush may be excited. There is, apparently, a defined circle, a chain of
* Handbuch fuer Physiologie. Q
114 OF THE CAPILLARIES,
action wherein the brain forms a principal part, through which the nervous influence must circulate, before the blood can appear on the cheek: of this I shall speak more amply in the third division of this subject when treating of the anastomosing of the nerves.
Before concluding my remarks on the capillary blood-vessels, I have another query to investigate, still more interesting than the preceding. It is this —Why does the blush take place on the cheek in preference to any other part of our system? _ Is the feeling of this region more exquisite than that of any other part of the dermis? Is its organic sensibility more highly wrought, or more highly endowed with’ nervous influence and vascu- larity, than all the rest of the cuticular surface ? These questions, interesting in themselves, lead to
investigations and inquiries doubly more so.
Every student of anatomy must have been forcibly struck with the peculiar arrangement of the capil- lary vessels beneath.the surface of the cheek, as seen
by injection. Their size, the intricacy of their interwoven communications with each other, form- ing a net-work, at first sight of confused and unde- fined vessels, (an appearance so different from that observed in other parts of the body,) and such as cannot fail to attract the attention of the student— to bid him pause and reflect upon the probable design of the Omnipotent in ordaining that this iso-
im OF THE CAPILLARIES. 115
lated portion of the human skin should be more abundantly supplied with red blood than that of any other part of the same external sentient surface.
If we inject an infant even with common coarse size, we see the face growing darker and darker as the injection advances, until it finally assumes the colour of venous blood. It not unfrequently becomes perfectly black; at other times it will assume the colour of a person who died from apo- plexy; all these circumstances confirm us in the belief that, even from birth, this part of the body is more highly organized, more replete with arterial blood, than any other portion of the external sur- face. It still remains for me to explain why this is so, for as yet I have only alluded to the fact of Such being the case; but, before I can properly explain all its bearings, and offer my own con- jectures upon this interesting subject, I must first make a few observations on the Dermoid System, especially that part of it belonging to the face, a subject intimately connected with the physiology of blushing and the peculiar arrangement of the ca- pillaries in the cheek—that external arena of the emotions of the soul—that focus of every involun- tary exhibition of internal feeling and sympathy.
CHAPTER III.
OF THE DERMIS, OR SKIN OF THE CHEEK.
« To man it is a sensitive limit, placed on the boundaries of his soul.” —Bicwat.
Tur skin is composed of three layers—the epidermis or scarf-skin, rete mucosum or seat of colour, and
the cutis or true skin. It is extremely porous and extremely vascular; a child in full vigour comes into the world, from this circumstance, scarlet, and it is also endowed with intense sensibility. ‘Some parts of the skin have more feeling than others ; the lips, for example, as Haller says, “ ad basia destinata,’ the glans clitoridis, glans penis, &c., with a similar intention. It is more dense and thick on those parts which nature has designed for bear- ing pressure or burthen, as seen on the back, on the soles of the feet, and palms of the hands; and on the contrary, we find the skin on the fore part of the body, on the inside of the arms and legs, and when its surfaces touch opposite surfaces, to be
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much more thin than on those parts just mentioned. It is extremely thin on the lips, and allows the colour of the blood to shine through it.
The epidermis, the exterior layer of our common integument, says Mr. Lawrence, is the thin trans- parent or light-greyish pellicle raised by a blister ; in the natural state it adheres closely, almost in- separably, to the subjacent parts, and is accurately _ fitted to the cutis, having folds and lines corres- ponding to all the inequalities of that organ. It presents no traces of fibres, lamina, or cells; it has no blood-vessels, absorbents, or nerves ; there- fore, though perforated by the hairs, by the excre- tory tubes of cutaneous follicles, by the exhalent mouths of the capillaries, and possibly by absorbent orifices, it is incapable of sensation and all vital ac- tions, extravascular and inorganic. It is a protect- ing sheath for the finely organized and sensible skin; and serves the further purpose of preventing evapor- ation, by which that organ would be inevitably dried. Thus the external surface of our living ma- chine is in a manner dead ; and objects applied to it act on the cuticular nerves through this insensi- ble medium. When preternaturally thickened, it destroys sensation; if removed, as by blistering, the contact of bodies gives pain, but does not pro- duce the appropriate impressions of touch.
The delicate rete mucosum, generally regarded as the seat of human colour—of all the diversified
118 OF THE DERMIS.
tints which characterize the various races of men, is interposed between the epidermis and cutis, or true skin—In the Negro it is more clearly demon- strated than in Europeans. Malpighi, who dis- covered its existence, announced that it gave colour to the skin; and this opinion is now admitted by all. In the Negro it is black; in the Chinese yel- low; in the aboriginal American, copper-colour ; while, in the European, it possesses different shades of red and olive, more or less approaching to white- ness. It is a deficiency of this rete that gives to the skin of the Albino a peculiar dead or pallid cast, something like that of leprous scales ; it is like- wise owing to their want of pigmentum, that the eyes of this being are so weak as hardly to see an object by day, or bear the rays of the sun. The rete is closely adherent to the cutis; and according to the interesting experiments and conclusions of the late Dr. Wallace on the Negro’s skin, it ap- pears, that the cohesion between the black pigment and the tissue in which it is deposited is so great, that the former could not be removed even by rub- bing the surface with lint. The next layer we come to, is that which has the greatest bearing on our subject, 7. e., the cutis or true skin.
The areolar tissue of the cutis is permeated in every direction by countless myriads of arterial and venous ramifications, of which the ultimate capillary divisions occupy the external or compact surface of
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the organ, and forms a vascular net-work over the entire body, eluding our enquiries and defying cal- culation by the number and fineness of its tubes. In the glow of exercise or the flush of shame, in the excitement of fever or the eruption of measles, Scarlatina, &c., these cutaneous vessels are filled with blood ; they may be injected with coloured fluids after death. Their ramifications are particu- larly numerous and subtile in those parts of the Cutaneous organ which possess the most exquisite Sensibility; and where the surface is found on Minute examination to be covered by numerous fine processes called villi.*
The colour of the cutis is uniform, or very nearly So, in all the varieties of the human race, and depends entirely on the state of its capillary blood-vessels. According as they are full or empty, it may vary (as we see in the white races) from a more or less florid red, constituting what artists call flesh colour, to the waxy paleness of fainting or exhaustion from hemorrhage. Maceration in water makes its areo- lar tissue quite white, and injection with size co- loured by vermilion gives it a deeper or lighter Shade of red, according to the force employed.
* It is the external vascular surface of the cutis, with its pa- Pillæ or villi, that Bichat has described as a separate stratum, un- der the name of corps RETICULAIRE.
+ Lawrence’s Lectures on Man.
120 OF THE DERMIS.
Before birth the cutaneous surface of the cheek contains more blood (comparatively speaking) than any other part of the same system, but then it is dark venous blood that circulates through its vessels. The fluid is as yet perfectly unaerated, and con- tinues so until birth, when the new-born being
breathes for the first time the oxygenated atmo- sphere in which he is to live. There now takes place a complete revolution in the dermoidal system ; the skin, which was hitherto of a blue or livid shade, assumes a scarlet colour from the arterial blood traversing those vessels which were formerly supplied by venous fluid alone. The skin of the face does not immediately assume that rosy tint which afterwards takes place there.
For some months after birth (says Bichat) that lively carnation is not yet observed which soon after is spread over the cheek, and which begins to manifest itself towards the time the sinuses are formed, and the teeth cut, at which period the pro- cess of nutrition attracts more vital activity to that part. This is generally observed during the process of dentition, as may be seen in the frequent flush- ings to which the face is subject during that critical period, and we can observe through the exquisitely delicate skin of the infant, with a magnifying glass, numbers of the minute vessels through which the blood is circulating, which are united and inter- woven in a beautiful manner with each other, and
OF THE DERMIS. 12]
appear to be immediately beneath the external cuta- neous surface.
M. Magendie stated in his lectures on the blood, delivered at the College of France, that the move- ment of this fluid in the capillaries of one’s own body may be seen in the following manner :— “ Place yourselves in a strong light, close your eyes, and then stretch the upper lids so as to render them as thin as possible ; they will permit the passage of a few luminous rays, and you will perceive, though of course indistinctly, the blood moving’ from the upper part of the lid towards the tarsal cartilage.” I have frequently tried this experiment, and found that the circulation appeared most distinct when the light was moderate, not strong, as observed by M. Magendie, and any individual may convince him- self of this by trying the experiment first close by a strong light, and then gradually withdrawing the eye to a given distance, in order to lessen the inten- sity of the luminous rays.
We now arrive at the investigation of that ques- tion I omitted answering in the last Chapter, viz., Why does the blush strike on the cheek in prefer- ence to any other part of the dermoidal system?
In the concluding remarks on the capillary sys- tem, I have alluded to the peculiar arrangement of the vessels of the cheek, and the facility by which that anatomical arrangement admits the blood to its surface. Now, I shall endeavour to explain why
R
199 OF THE DERMIS.
this is so; and before offering my own peculiar views on this point, let us first hear the observations of the immortal Bichat, on the same subject. -Here I shall make a remark, says this physiolo- a gist, which to me appears very important—it is, that the capillary system of the face is much more
liable than that of any other part to be permeated with blood—First, This is obvious in the two cases I have just mentioned, (after violent running, and during the hot stage of fever,) wherein the action of the heart is increased. Secondly, In passions, the _ skin remains the same in all other parts, whilst this | suddenly flushes or turns pale. Thirdly, We know that the physician frequently consults the state of the capillary system of the face, because it is most generally influenced by that of the internal viscera; that it is filled with or void of blood ace erate as it is sympathetically affected, &c.
From what does this remarkable susceptibility of the capillary system of the face to admit red blood proceed? I believe three essential causes give rise to it—First, The way is already open,
since the colour of the cheek proclaims its presence, its quantity only is increased, whilst, whenever an- other part of the skin is flushed, the blood it con- tains is nearly accidental. Secondly, The anato- mical arrangement of the capillary system is better accommodated there, than in other parts, to this in- flux of the blood; for, it appears that there is a
OF THE DERMIS. #33
more ready communication between this system and the arteries of the corium. This is proved by in- jection, in which the face colours with the utmost facility. There is not an anatomist, I dare, say, who has not occasionally been struck with this phenomenon in infants particularly, in which, if the coarse injections of our dissecting rooms pass even imperfectly, the face becomes quite black, whilst very little fluid penetrates the other parts of the cutaneous system. Thirdly, It appears that there is a quicker sensibility in the face; in fact, the stimulant that attracts the blood to this part does not act with the same force elsewhere; for. instance, a blow upon the ear will redden the cheeks more than a similar blow applied to the arms, &c.
The blood is withdrawn from the capillary sys- tem of the face with the same rapidity as it flows to it; in the space of a moment, passions will alter- nately impress upon the features both the fiery complexion of a fever, the paleness of syncope, and also every intermediate shade. It is the facility with which this fluid penetrates those parts that colours the living picture, as it were, in which the divers passions alternately tinge the features with a thousand different shades, which fade away, return, change, and are modified, according to the state of the mind.
I have observed in this respect, that the face af- fords to our passions three means of expression—
124 OF THE DERMIS.
First, The capillary system, perfectly independent of the will, and which often betrays what we wish to conceal. Secondly, The muscular motions, which, by contracting or expanding the features, express melancholy and grief, or joy and happiness. Thirdly, The state of the eye, an organ which, as Buffon has remarked, not only receives the sensa- tions, but also expresses the passions. The two latter circumstances are, in some means, voluntary, at least we may feign them, whilst we could not be deceived by the first. Anger, joy, &c., may be imitated by frowning, by laughing, &c.; but it is the Roucs by which the actress represents modesty and innocence ; let it be wiped off, and the paleness of fear and terror instantly appears. I shall add another essential observation in respect to the capil- lary system of the face, which is, that its tendency to be over-run with blood disposes it to become more frequently the seat of a multitude of affections. Erysipelas is more frequently detected in this part than in any other; it is the principal seat of the pustules in smallpox, &c.*
With regard to all the statements of this author, I perfectly agree, with one single exception, which is this: “ In passions,” says Bichat, “ the skin re- mains the same in all other parts, whilst this (the skin of the face) suddenly flushes or turns pale.”—
* Systéme Dermoide, pp. 668, 669, Anatomie Générale, par Xav. Bichat.
OF THE DERMIS. 125
That this is not strictly correct I am certain will be readily allowed, for many cogent reasons— First, In the intense blush, as seen in some deli- cate females, we may observe, that not only the skin of the face, but that of the ears, scalp, neck, and bosom, assumes the same crimson aspect ; this is not a rare phenomenon; it may be observed in almost every ball or drawing-room; and with which I am sure every one is familiar. I have oftentimes observed the blush commence on the neck and ears, and then spread to the cheek, when all three were engaged together. How are we to ac- count for this? Are we to look upon such a case as an exception to the general rule, as a lusus nature? No, the question is not insolvable; it appears to me to be very easily explained :—
It is the custom of all nations, as already ob- served, to leave the face bare, whatever may be their creed or location. In cold, or even temperate climates, as our own, the external atmosphere, } which is below the heat of the body, constantly act- ing on the exposed surface of the facial skin, natu- rally attracts blood to the part, not for the sake of beauty, but for the caloric which it gives off. Now, the constant ingress of blood to this particular part, which is kept up through life by the very same means that first attracted it there, must render the minute arterial tubes more dilatable, and, conse- quently, more liable to become filled with red blood
126 OF THE DERMIS,
on any case of emergency, than in any other part of the same system.
Thus it is, that in a temperate climate, we ob- serve the fairest skins and most rosy complexions ; and in those countries beneath the tropics we ob- serve the very reverse. According to the afore- said counter-stimulant law, the neck and bosom of a female, who, in compliance with the custom of her country, and the fashions of society, keeps them constantly exposed, must become more plen- tifully supplied with animal heat than they would require if equally covered with the rest of the body. Then, how is this heat to be procured ? The blood, the source of all heat, must traverse through “ gates and alleys,” where it was not re- quired before, to diffuse its genial warmth, convey increased vitality, and its natural consequence, sus- ceptibility, to the part concerned. ‘This increased flow of blood, together with the anatomical arrange- ment and exquisite delicacy of the skin in this re- gion, renders it more accessible to the red fluid than other parts which are not exposed, and finally brings its organic sensibility on a par with that of the cheek.
It may be stated in opposition to the foregoing theory, that the peculiar redness of the cheek is often confined to.a circumscribed spot, and is not diffused. over the whole face; and, at the same time, it may be asked, why does not the neck
OF THE DERMIS. 127
become rosy as well as the former, as from the above reasoning the laws of the one should equally apply to the other. It has been already stated that the capillaries of the face have an arrangement pe- culiar to themselves, for the express purpose (as we must infer) of colouring and diffusing heat over this part of the body, which is generally kept bare, and seems to have been originally intended by na- ture to be so, from its singular peculiarity of organ- ization, which we must certainly conceive to have been so constituted for some wise end.
Although a redness similar to that of the cheek in its natural and healthy state is not observable on the neck in those instances alluded to, yet that the minute blood-vessels of this part are more sus- ceptible of the blood’s ingress, or in the words of Bichat, that “ the way is more freely open” for the admission of this fluid than in other parts, is suff- ciently proved by the fact of their being instanta- neously filled in the act of blushing, and partaking of as deep a scarlet colour as the cheek itself. The organic sensibility of this region must be highly developed in order to render it so susceptible. The blood must have been in greater abundance on the external surface of the dermis or true skin, the circulation in the capillaries immediately beneath the epidermis of this part more lively and free than elsewhere, and owing to the increased vascularity of the neck, scalp, ears, and bosom, arising from the
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128 OF THE DERMIS.
causes already explained, the blood is as easily drawn to their surface from any impulse of the sensorium, as exemplified in some of the passions, as it is to that of the face in the act of blushing. I must therefore conclude that the face is not the only part which colours.
It has been stated, and I have heard individuals repeat the assertion, that in the act of blushing the same glow of heat that is felt upon the cheek is a moment previously experienced in the epigastric region, as if a harbinger of what was about to take place. That this is the fact I have not the slightest doubt, and we may reasonably infer that a point so extremely sensitive as this is, must participate more or less in the general sympathetic and organic emotion. I have already alluded to the abundant supply of involuntary nerves with which this region is en- dowed; it is, as it were, the focus of involition, whence emanate a variety of sensations peculiar to this place, sometimes pleasing and sometimes pain- ful, for which reason it has been called by the illustrious Hunter, ‘the sensitive centre,” or “centre of sympathies.”
Every individual about to blush is conscious of a peculiar sensation in this particular region be- fore the phenomenon actually takes place, and of this impression, and the probable influence it has in stimulating the vascularity of the cutaneous sur- face in its immediate vicinity during the production
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of the blush, I shall discuss more fully in the Third Section of this Essay, or that which bears exclusively on its physiology.
To me the construction of these parts (the appa- ratus of the sympathies which I have just spoken of) has long been a source of reflection, nor do I think any individual can meditate even for a mo- ment on the subject, without being impressed with a feeling of happiness and delight on observing the harmony of movement of these delicately organised structures, and the evident security with which all are arranged, combined, and made effectual, not only for sympathizing with every emotion of the soul, but likewise for fulfilling the great end for which their exquisite adjustment was designed— the maintenance of Life.
I have now concluded my observations on the « Anatomy of Blushing,” and am fully aware how imperfectly they have been made. It was not my intention to go deeply or minutely into this part of the subject, as avowed at the commencement of the Section. I deemed it merely necessary to give an outline of the construction and arrangement of the principal parts concerned in the production of this phenomenon, and have accordingly confined my anatomical remarks within as small a compass as possible; if I have erred in this respect I have to crave the indulgence of my readers, as brevity was the main object, and an Essay of this kind, intended
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130 OF THE DERMIS.
principally for the general reader, would not be adapted for abstract physiological inquiry. I have endeavoured, though, perhaps, in a limited sense of the phrase, to give the “‘ utile et dulce” in these pages, by drawing moral inductions from natural phenomena, both pleasing and interesting in them- selves; and if this subject be regarded by the reader with the same interest as that with which I have looked upon it, my. expectations will be fulfilled.
SECTION THIRD.
THE MECHANISM OF BLUSHING.
CHAPTER I. OF THE SENSATION OF BLUSHING.
In the preceding pages I have described the “ Ana- tomy” of the parts engaged in Blushing—I have there treated of the brain and spinal marrow, and of the voluntary and involuntary nerves emanating from them. We have seen that these which were placed beyond the control of the will, or in other
words, the nerves of involition, were most particu-
larly engaged in the production of this interesting phenomenon. I have alluded to the epigastric cen- tre, where the whole influence of the involuntary nervous system seems to be concentrated in the semilunar ganglia or solar plexus, whence arise such a variety of sensations, both painful and other- wise, that the ancients believed it to be the seat of the passions—the source whence every emotion of rage, fear, hope, joy, and sorrow had their origin ;
132 OF THE SENSATION OF BLUSHING.
and some even honoured this region as the exclu- sive residence of the soul. I have explained the sympathy that the heart and stomach evince in every mental emotion, particularly the heart, which never fails to participate in the slightest disturbance of the mind. I have pointed out how highly both of these vital organs are endowed with the nervous energy of involition, how their functions may be carried on by night as well as by day, in our sleeping and waking moments, always the same —sleepless and inexhaustible. This vital action going on from the cradle to the grave, forcibly pro- claims the wisdom of the Deity in thus guarding the wonderful mechanism of our frames against constant and inevitable death. I have, likewise, _ investigated the minute blood-vessels or capillary system, as being intimately connected with this sub- ject—we have seen them interlace with each other in a thousand different ways, defying all calcula- tion, and I have offered an explanation why the cheek and neck in particular should be the seat of the blush—why the minute vessels of these parts of the body should be influenced by the emotions of © the mind, exclusively, in admitting the red blood to the surface of the skin, which is not observed on other parts. E I have concluded the Second Section of this Essay with some observations on the dermoidal sys- tem generally, but more particularly on that part
OF THE SENSATION OF BLUSHING. 133
belonging to the cheek ; and have endeavoured to explain the anatomical arrangement and construc- tion of the different layers of this organ, as observed both in the Negro and European. We have seen that the capillaries in the dermis of the face, neck, and scalp, communicated much more freely with each other than those of other parts of the same organ ; that their arrangement was peculiar in this respect—and from this peculiarity arose the great liability of the skin in these places to become in- vaded with blood under certain circumstances. Having already shown the anatomy of the parts concerned in the production of the pheno- menon—lI have now to unite all these into one, and describe the Mechanism by whose action the blush
is finally brought forth upon the cheek.
No one who has arrived at the years of maturity but must be more or less, familiar with that pecu- liar and indescribable sensation which immediately precedes the appearance of the blush on the cheek.
After the impression is made on the sensorium which is to excite this phenomenon, we become im- mediately conscious of what is about to take place— we feel that the will is overpowered—and, for the time being, is rendered subordinate to the mental powers, and the emotions of sympathy. Now, from the feeling of our own helplessness, like a bad swimmer when out of his depth, we become flurried,
134 OF THE SENSATION OF BLUSHING,
and in our eager attempts to avert the threatened result, by endeavouring to expel from the mind or imagination that association of ideas which is about to bring it forth, we only fix it the more firmly, and ensure its full development, to the deep mortifi- , cation and prostration of our will. .
* Presently a kind of fluctuating glow pervades the „entire frame—there is great mental confusion—the eyes languish, and never look towards the bystander —the countenance loses its wonted animation—every feature seems to droop—the head itself hangs, as if endeavouring to conceal from external gaze the mental emotion which is about to be reflected from the soul upon the face. There is a thrill or throb- bing of the heart, which is oftentimes visible exter- nally—we feel a momentary oppression in the re- gion of the stomach or centre of sympathies, and semilunar ganglia—the breathing becomes affected in the general sympathy, and a stifling follows as in grief—all self-possession is lost for the moment —the voice becomes changed, and the vague man- ner of speaking is not unfrequently the harbinger of the deep and burning blush which is soon to follow.
The individual concerned often feels a peculiar sensation similar to the epileptic aura rising from the precordia upwards, as if it was the impulse which the stomach had received from the brain, being reflected back upon the face; all this takes
OF THE SENSATION OF BLUSHING. 135
place immediately, and follows the first mental im- pression. The blush is now felt stealing to the surface of the cheek—the skin begins to tingle, and before the phenomenon is perfected, there is pain, heat, redness, and swelling, or in other words, a species of temporary inflammation ensues. When the blush is intense, an overwhelming em- barrassment is the result; there is not a vital organ in the body which does not participate in the gene- ral emotion ; and it is even affirmed, that the cor- pora cavernosa become. injected, which must evi- dently take place from an engagement of the spinal nerves, through the media of the sympathetics in this particular instance.
As my theory of the Physiology of Blushing is principally based upon the conviction of an anasto- mosing or joining of the minute filaments of the organic and complex nerves, I shall here make some observations on this subject.
CHAPTER II.
OF THE ANASTOMOSING OF THE NERVES.
Wiis was the first anatomist who gave an accu- rate description of the brain and nerves. He was also the first who endeavoured to explain the various instances of sympathy between the different parts of the body from the communications or anastomoses of their nerves. Vieussens afterwards adopted and illustrated this doctrine further, and his views were embraced by the majority of writers down to the time of Whytt. This latter author, in his work on Nervous Disorders, where he treats of the “ struc- ture, use, and sympathy of the nerves,” has endea- voured with much energy and argument to subvert this doctrine. The prevailing opinion (says Whytt) has been that the sympathies are owing to the communications between the nerves, and particularly to the connection which the intercostals have with the fifth, sixth, and eighth pairs, and with almost all those which proceed from the spinal marrow. Upon this principle it has been thought easy to
OF THE ANASTOMOSING OF THE NERVES. 137
trace the various sympathies not only between the several parts of the abdomen, but also between them and the head, neck, thorax, and extremities; but, however plausible this theory may appear at first view, and how readily soever it may seem to ex-
plain many remarkable instances of consent ; yet a more strict examination will show it to be liable to insuperable difficulties.
Professor Whytt, in endeavouring to subvert the theory—‘‘ that the sympathy of the several parts of the body was dependent on a union or anastomosis of their nerves,” has laid down a series of obstacles, all of which do not appear to me